Date: 1926-01-01T07:00:00+00:00
Keywords: liberty
Publisher: New York, Vanguard Press

Individual Liberty

Benjamin R. Tucker

Individ ualLiberty Selections From the Writings 0/ BENJAMIN R. TUCKER E;.DI TED· Bye. L. S. NEW YORK VANGUARD PRESS MCMXXVI PRllNTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ~4r89 ( PUB L""I 8HER'8 NOTE C. L. S., the editor and compiler of this book, has known :Benjamin R. Tucker personally since 1891" having entered his' employ at. that time in the mechanical department of Liberty, Mr. Tucker's, journal.for the exposition of Individ ualist Anarchism. •After that time and until the final suspen-' sion of publication 'of Liberty, C. ,L. S. contributed many articles to the columns. of that periodical, both signed and unsigned, usually in the editorial department. For a considerable period he had complete editorial charg~, during Mr. Tucker's absence. Thus the present work has been per formed by one who has entire "familiarity with Liberty's philosophy and who perhaps at present has a closer sympathy with Mr. Tucker's ideas than any other person in America.

Mr. Tucker has written that ((the editor is well chosen~ and his qualificatio~s for-the job undeniable." He does~ how ever, request that the volume shall be prefaced by a state ment that he, ((while gratefully acknowledging the good will that has inspired .the. publication," has •had' no hand in the work of abridgment, and that the project has been executed without his e~press sanction or approval, although the pub.. lisher's action is ((above,reproach." In justice to Mr. Tucker, however, it should be stated that he emphatically protested against the elimination of the words of ••' his opponents .in the controversies, since he had always been scrupulously exact in presenting their ideas in full;' but the limited scope of this volume made such omission im perative. A word as to the title of this boak. Tucker's life work is devoted to the exposition of the fights of the iii iv PUBLISHER'S NOTE Individual. As a title for the journal which he used as a medium of expression for thirty years, he chose Liberty. It seems fitting that these two words, standing as they do for the highest aspirations of mankind, should be joined togethe'r in a title for'this compilation' of Tucker's libertarian and/ anarchistic te·achings.

EDITOR'S FOREWo1{n For a number of years practically all of the. literature of Individualist Anarchism has been. Qut of· print. The great bulk of whatever matter there was had, of course, been in .the handsof Benjamin R. Tucker, and up to 1908 it was being constantly augmen/ted by him. But when, in January of that year, his entire wholesale stock of publications, manuscripts, etc., and nearly. all of his plates were wiped out by fire, the lo~s was irreparable, and little attempt has been made. to •re place any of the material destroyed. The demand for something representative ,of Individualist Anarchism has become so insistent that it has been. determined to··produce at least .one volume of the best matter available, and in that volume to'attempt to cover the whole subject. \ The ·.·nearest.that .an.y .hqokevc·r came .to answering that description is Tucker's UInstead of a Book,"first .published.in 1893, .culled from his writings in his pe,riodical,Liberty, and out of print since 1908. This closely printed volume of nea'rly 500 pages was. composed of questions-and criticisms by his correspondents and by writers in other periodicals, all answered by the editor of Liberty in that keen, clear~cut style that was the delight of his.adherents and the despair of his opponents.

, In •casting about for material· for the proposed. v()lume~ therefore, no other writings thanthose of Benjamin R. Tucker could for"a moment be considered, and it is no exaggeration to say that ·~hey .stand. high above everything else .that has been written on. the subject,. not eVen excepting the works of Jos~ahWarren,Proudhon, and Lysander Spooner, or· of any other person who has ever a.:tt~mpted to expound the principles of Individualist· Anarchism. Mr. Tucke:r is an educated and cultured man. His v vi EDITOR'S FOREWORD literary style is both fluent and elegant, his statements concise and accurate, his arguments logical and convincing, and his replies terse yet courteous. The reade'r is never at a loss to know what he means. There is not a word too much or too little. Every sentence is rounded and complete-not a re dundant syllable or a missing punctuation mark. What he writes is a joy to read, even when the reader himself is the victim of his withering sarcasm or caustic satire.

A brief resume of Mr. Tucker's life will serve to indicate the background of his remarkable personality. He was born in South Dartmouth, Massachusetts, April 17, 1854, the son of Abner R. Tucker, owner and outfitter of whale ships and later a grocer in New Bedford. His mother was Caroline A. Cummings, his father's second wife, and Benjamin was their only child. The father was of Quaker parents and the mother was a Unitarian, and an able, progressive and radical woman, her father having been a pronounced admirer of Thomas Paine. At two years Tucker was reading English fluently and at four gleefully discovered that the Episcopal Prayer Book had misquoted the' Bible. At sixteen he had finished the course at the Friends' Academy, and, while at :first refusing to go to any college, he finally spent two years at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Boston). After' hearing Josiah Warren speak and CoL William B. Greene quote Proudhon at a convention of the New England Labor Reform League in Boston in 1872, he soon became an Anarchist and translated Proudhon's (What Is Property?" from the French. In 1877 he edited The Word in Princeton, Massachusetts, while its editor, Ezra H. Heywood, was in prison. In 1878 he estab lished and conducted for a year The Radical Revi{!w in New Bedford. In the same year he joined the editorial· staff of the Boston Daily Globe, remaining for eleven years.

In 188 I he founded Liberty, which he continued to pub lish, with some irregularity and several suspensions, until 1908 , the last issue appearing in April of that year, a few months after the disastrous :fire. In I 892, when he assumed editorial EDITOR'S· FOREWORD vii duties. on The Engineering Magazine, he removed Liberty to NewXork, •where it was,published. until its final suspension. Since that time Lucker has been living il1France. ((Instead ofa Book" was.•deemed uns:uitable.for reproduc tion. in its present form because it contains •• so many articles d~alin.g with local and current events.. It was.•decided that Ingividualist Anarchism could bet~er be expounded by present ingthe wordsof Mr. Tuckeralone~eliminating the volwninous letters of his correspondents and many more or less personal matters that crep.t into the discussions,.with just enough"ex planatory matter written by the editor to indicate what drew forth the. arguments advanced by.LiberlJl's editor and to con nect up the loose ends. In many cases Mr. Tucker has so care fully restated the position of his adversary that it has been un necessary for the editor to repeat it.

The compiler has therefore merely attempted to weld to gether· the·.different .sections and' weave the various articles into a more or less continuous whole. The task. has proved to be difficult beyond all preconception, and that it has been performed with complete success it would be presumptuous to assert. In :M:r. Tucker's· controversies with his correspondents and others, occasional allusions to· persons and matters not in volved .in the discussion have entered. These, while perfectly pertinent when his opponents' remarks were given, add ·little 1:0 the force of the arguments for the Anarchistic position which it is the purpose of this volum<? exclusively to set· :forth~ and they have therefore generally been excised, in spite of the fact th~tthey constitute some of Mr. Tucker's most pungent writing. In some places this method of treatment has made it necessary to eliminate parts of paragra_phsand even parts of sentences". This elision has not been indicated by asterisks or otherwise, because the frequency of suchin:stances would hav~made the matter too disconnected; .while· the main object of this volume is to present, as nearly as possible, an unbroken exposition. It is cOl}sidered that this proceeding· is entirely :viii EDITOR'S FOREWORD unobjectionable, since the essential arguments are thus ex pressed just as clearly, and of course more concisely, than in the complete original.

((Instead of a Book" contained only material published in Liberty previous to 1893, so the columns of Liberty since that date have been resorted to for some additional material. The editor wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to those comrades, all plumb-liners of the period when Liberty w'as the venerated medium for the exchange of their ideas, who have aided him, by advice and hard work, in the preparation of this volume, the index thereto having been prepared by the same person who performed that service for ((Instead of a Book." c. L. S. Los Angeles, California. August, 1926.

CONTENTS Page PUBLISHER)-S NOTE .. ...•. .....• iii EDITOR'S FOREWORD. y SOCIOLOGY: I-STATE SOCIALISM AND ANARCHISM: How Far They Agre~ and Wherein They Differ I II-THE INDIVIDUAL, SOCIETY, AN]) THE STATE: The Relation of the State to the IndividuaL..... zo Liberty's Declaration of Purpose......................... 30 Anarchism and the State ' !................... 3I Resistance to Government.................................. 36 Liberty and Organization.................................... 43 Liberty and Taxation M!.!............... 47 Anarchism and Crime. 58 Liberty and. Politics !.......................... 62. Liberty and Prohibition .~..................................... 66 Anarchism and Capital.Punishment. 7 I Liberty and Property............................... 72.. Anarchism and· Force......................... 74 METHODS: Passive· Resistance ]6 The Futility of the Ballot................... 8I Voluntary Cooperation a Remedy.................... 84ECONOMICS: I-MONEY ·AND INTEREST: Capital, Profits, and Interest...................... 87 Free· Money First 94 Free Bankillg 97 The Abolition of Interest 1.02.

Necessity for a Standard of Value~ 116 The Redemption of Paper Money................ 135 Government and Value 147 Henry George and Interest 160 Various Money Schemes ~ 169 ix CONTENTS Page II-LAND AND RENT: Land for the People.................................... 181 Rent 182 Economic Rent ~. 186 , Liberty, Land, and Labor · 193 Property Under Anarchism 2.13 Occupancy and Use Versus the Single Tax 2. 15 George and the Single Tax.......................... 23 5 METHODS: Refusal to Pay Rent...... 244 TIl-TRADE AND INDUSTRY: The Attitude of Anarchism Toward Industrial Combinations , 248 Strikes and Force 257 Labor and Its Pay......... 262. The Postoflice and Private Mail Service 265 Li~erty or Authority 271 Liberty and Labor 277 Competition and Cooperation. 281 Liberty and the Boycott.............................. 2. 83 Anarchism and Copyright.......................... 286 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...............................................•.................... 289 INDEX 291 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY SO.CIOLOGY I-STATE SOCIALISM,·ANI) ANARCHISM: HOW FAR THEY AGREE, AND WHEREIN THE~ DIFFER This essay,whichis.' the clearest statement on.the sub ject that has ever been ptoduced,waswritten by Mr.

Tucker in 18-86, in response to an invitation fr01l1 the editor of. the North American, Review. to .£urnish him a paper, on, Anarchism. It was accepted, 'announced, for publication, and was' paid for; but it •was never printed in that magazine, and, after numerous letters of inquiry ha.d been sent, the manuscript was returned to the author, although the .editor of the Review .•.volunteered the. dec laration thatit was the ablest article that he. had received dutinghiseditorship. It appeared.as the leading article in Hlnstead ofa Book," and, after forty years, it is still easily the. most important thing inthe.presen.t volume: PROBABLY no agitation •has ,ever .attained , the magnitude, either in the number of its recruits or the area of its influ-. ence,' which has been attained by Modern Socialism, and at; the<sametime heenso little understood and so misunderstood, not. only.by· the hostile and the.indifferent, .but by the friendly, ,an<.1.even .by the··great mass of its •adherents themselves. ,. This unfortunate and highly dangerousstateo£ things is··due partly I 2. INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY to the fact that the human relationships which this move ment~if anything so chaotic can be called a movement-aims to transform, involve no special class or classes, but literally all mankind; partly to the fact that these relationships are infi nitely more varied and complex in their nature than those with which any special reform has ever been called upon to deal; and partly to the fact that the great moulding forces of society, the channels of information and enlightenment, are well-nigh exclusively under the control of those whose im mediate pecuniary interests are antagonistic to the bottom claim of Socialism that labor should be put in possession of its own.

Almost the only per~ons who may be said to comprehend even approximately the significance, principles, and purposes of Socialism are the chief leaders of the extreme wings of the Socialistic forces, and perhaps a few of the money kings them selves. It is a subject of which it has lately become quite the fashion for preacher, professor, and penny-a-liner to treat, and, for the most part, woful work they have made with it, exciting the derision and pity of those competent to judge. That those prominent in the intermediate Socialistic divisions do not fully understand what they are about is evident from the positions they occupy. If they .did; ·i£ they were consist ent, logical thinkers; if they were whatthe French call conse quent men,-their ~ea'soningf~culties would long since have driven them to one extreme or the other. For it is a curious fact that the two extremes of the vast army now under·..consideration,· though united, as has been hinted above, by the common claim that labor shall be put in possession of its own, are more diametrically opposed to each other in their fundamental principles of social action and their methods of reaching the ends aimed at than either is to their common enemy, the existing society. They are based on two principles the history of whose conflict is almost equivalent to the history of the world since man came into it; and all inter mediate parties, including that· of the upholders of the exist ing, society, are· base<J upon a compromise between them. It is clear, then, that any intelligent; deep-rooted opposition· to the prevailing order of things must come from one or the other of these extremes, for anything from any other source, far from being revolutionary in character, could be only in the INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY nature of such superficial rtlodifi~ation las would be utterly un.able to concentrate upon itself the degreeo£ attention and in.terest •now bestowed upon Mode:rn Socialism.

The two principles referred to are AuthorityartdLiperty, and the names of. the two schools of Socialistic thought which fully and unreservedly represent. one or the other· of .them are, respectively, State Socialism and Anarchism ... Whoso knows what these two schools want and how they propose to get •it unders1:~nds the Soci~listic 1novetnent. Pot':> just as ;t has been said that there is no half ..way .house between ,Rome and Reason, so it may be said that there is no half ..way house be tween State Socialism. and Anarchism. There are, in fact, two currents steadily flowing from the centre of the Socialistic forces. which are concentrating· them on the left and on the right;and,if Socialism is to prevail, it is among the possibili ties that, after this movement of separation<has been com pletedand the existing order has. been crushed out between tlle two camps, the ultim.ate a'nd bitterer conflict will be still to come. I~ that case all the eight..hour men, all the trades unionists, .a11.the Knights of Labor, all tlae•land nationalization ists,all the greenbackers, and, in. short, all the members of the thousand and one different battalions belonging to. the great army of Labor, will have deserted their old posts, ·and, these beingarr,ayed on the one side and the other, the great battle will begin. What a final victory for· the-·State S<?ci~1ists will mean, and what a .final ... victory for· the Anarchists will mean, it is the purpose;,of this paper to briefly state.

To do this intelligently, however, I must first describe the ground common. to both, the feat\:lres that make Socialists of each.of them. The economic principles. of Modern,·Socialism area logical deduction from the principle laid·dow~ by. Adam Smith in ,the early chapters .of his «Wealth. of N ations,"-namely, that labor .is the true measure· of •price. But Adam Smith, after stating this principle most clearly and concisely, immediately abandoned all further consideration of it to devote himself to' showing· what actually. does measure price,· and· how, therefore~ wealth is at present distributed. Since his day nearly all the political··economists have followed his example by. confining their.function to the, description of society as it is, in its in dustrial and commercial phases. Socialism, on the contrary:.

INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY; extends its function to the description of society as it should be, and the discovery of the means of making it what it should be. Half a century or more after Smith enunciated the principle above stated, Socialism picked it· up where he had dropped it, and in following it to its logical conclusions, made it the basis of a new economic. philosophy. This seems to have been done independently by three differ ent men, of three different nationalities, in three· different languages: Josiah Warren, an American; Pierre J. Proudhon, a Frenchman; Karl Marx, a German Jew. That Warren and Proudhon arrived at their conclusions singly and unaided is certain; but whether Marx was not largely indebted to Prou dhon Jor his economic ideas is questionable. However this may be, Marx's presentation of the ideas was in so many respects peculiarly his own that he is fairly entitled to the credit of originality. That the work of this interesting trio should have been done so nearly simultaneously would seem to indicate that Socialism was in the air, and that the time was ripe and.

the conditions favorable for the appearance of this new school of thought. So far as priority of time is concerned, the credit seems to belong to Warren, the American,-a fact which should be noted by the stump orators who are so fond of de claiming against Socialism as an imported article. Of the purest revolutionary blood, too, this Warren, for he descends from the Wa.rren who fell at Bunker Hill. From Smith's principle that labor is the true measure of price-or, as Warren phrased it, that cost is the proper limit of price-:-these three men made the following deductions: that the natural wage of labor is its product; that this wage, or product, is the only just source of income (leaving out, of course, gift, inheritance, etc.) ; that all who derive income from any other source abstract it directly or indirectly from the natural and just wage of labor; that this abstracting process generally takes one of three forms,-interest, rent, and profit; that these three constitute the trinity of usury, and are simply different methods of levying tribute for the use of capital; that, capital being simply stored-up labor which has already received its pay in full, its use ought to be gratuitous, on the principle that labor is the only basis of price; that the lender of capital is entitled to its return intact, and nothing more; that the only reason why the banker, the stockholder, the .-INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY landlord, the manufacturer, and the merchant are able to exact usury from labor lies in the fact that they are backed by legal privilege, or monopoly; and that the only way to secure labor the enjoyment of itsentlre product,. or natural, wage, is to strike down monopoly.

It must not be inferred that either Warren, Proudhon, or .Marx .used exactly this phraseology, .or followed exactly this line of thought, but it indicates. definitely enough thefunda ..' inertt~l . ground takert .by ~ll' three, an.d their substantial thought up to the limit to which they went in common. And, les~ •I. may be "accusedof stating' the positions and arguments of these men incorrectly, it may ,be well to say in advance that I have viewed them brQadly, and that, for the purpose of sharp, vivid, and emphatic comparison and contrast, I have taken· considerable liberty with their thought by rearranging it in an or:der, and often in,.a.phraseology, of my own, but, I am satisfied, without, in so doing, misrepresenting them in any essential particular.' It,wasatthispoint--the necessity of striking down. monop oly--that came the parting of their ways. Here the road forked. '.' They found that. they must turn either to the.right or to the left,~£ol1oweither the path of Authority or the path .ofLiberty. ,Marx went one way; Warren and Proudhon the other .. ··Thus were born State,Socialism and Anarchism.

First, then, State Socialism, which may be described as the doctrine that aU the affairs o/men should be imanaged by the. government, .regardless.of, individ'Z!alchoice. Marx, its founder, concluded .that the only way to abolish the class' monopolies was to centralize and' consolidate all in dustrial.and commercial interests, all productive and distribu tiveagencies,jnonevast monopoly in the hands of the State. The government must become banker,manufacturer" farmer, carrier, •and merchant,. and, in these capacities must suffer no competition. Land, tools, and all instruments of production must be wrested from indiyidual hands, and made the property of the collectivity. To the individual can belong only the products. to be consumed, not the means of producing them. A man ma.y own his clothes and 'his food, but not the sewing machine', which. make$ ,his.'shirts, or the spade. which diss·' his potatoes. Product and capital are essentially different things; the.formeibelongs ·to individuals, the latter to, society. Society 6 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY must seize the capital which belongs to it, by the ballot if it can, by rev;olution if it must. Once in possessionof it, it must administer it on the majority principle, through its organ, the State, utilize it in production and distribution, fix all prices by the' amount of labor involved, and employ the whole people in its workships, farms, stores, etc. The nation mUSt be trans formed into a vast bureaucracy, and every individual into a State official. Everything must he done on the cost principle~ the people having no motive to make a profit out of them selves. Individuals not being allowed to own capital, no one ~an employ another, or even himself. Everyman will he a wage-receiver, and the State the only wage-payer. Hewho will not work for the State must starve, or, more likely, go to prison. All freedom of trade must disappear. Competition must be utterly wiped out. All ·industrial and commercial activity must be centred in one vast, enormous, all-inclusive' monopoly. The remedy for l1'lonopoliesis monopoly.

Such is the economi~ programme of State Socialism as adopted from Karl Marx. The history of its growth and progress cannot be told here. In this country the parties ·that uphold it are known as the Socialistic Labor Party, which pre tends tofollow Karl Marx; the Nationalists, who follow Karl Marx filtered through Edward Bellamy; and the Christian Socialists, who follow Karl Marx filtered through Jesus Christ. What other applications this principle of Authority, once adopted in the economic sphere,' will develop is. very evident. It means the absolute control by the majority of all individual conduct. The right of such control is already admitted by the State Socialists, though they maintain that, as a matter of ~act, the individual would be allowed a much larger liberty than he now enjoys. But he would only be allowed it; he could not claim it as his own. There would be ho foundation of society upon a guaranteed equality of the largest possible liberty. Such liberty as 111ight exist would exist by sufferance and could be taken away at any moment. Constitutional guar antees would be of no avail. There would be but one article in the constitution of a State Socialistic country: cCThe right of the majority is absolute."

The claim of the State Socialists, however, that this right would not be exercised in matters pertaining to the individual in the more intimate and private relations of his life is not INDIVIDU At LIBERTY borne out by the history of governments., It has ever been the 'tendency of power to add to itself, to enlarge its sphere, to en croachbeyond the limits. set for It;. and where ·the habit of resisting such encroachment is not fostered, and the individual is not taught to bejealous of his rights, individuality gradu ally disappears and the" government or State becomes the all in~all •.·.. Control naturally accompanies responsibility. Under the system of State Socialism, therefore, which holds the com.. munityresponsihle for thehealth~ wealth~ and wisdom of the individual,.it is evident that the oommunity, through its ma jority .•expression, will insist more •and ". more "on prescribing the conditions of health, wealth, and. wi:sdo~, thus ~mpairing and-nnally destroying individual independence and with it .all $enseo£ individual responsibility.

Whatever, .then, .the· State. Socialistsmaycla.im ordis.claim, th.eir system,if adopted, is doomed to end in a State religion, to the expense of which all must contribute and at the altar of which all must kneel; •a State school. of. medicine, by whose .. pra.ctitionersthesickmustinvariablybe treated; a State system of hygiene, prescribing what all must and must not. eat, drink, weu, and do; a State code Q£morals, which will not content itself with punishing· crime, but will pro¥ibitw:hat the major ity <lecideto· be vice; a State system.of irlstruction, which will do>away with alLprivate schools, academies, and colleges;a State nursery, in -which all· children must be. brought up 'in cOllunop. at •the •• public expense; and, finally, a.· State. family, with ..an attempt at stirpiculture, or scientific· breeding, in whiCh.no man and woman will be 'allowed' to have children if the. State prohibits' them and .no' man and woman can refuse to nave ~hi1dl'en if the St-ate orders them. Thus will Author ...· 1£y .achieve its acme and Monopoly be carried ,to its. highest power.

Such .is· ·the ideal•• o£ ~he logical State· Socialist, such the goal which .li~s .at 'the end of the road that .Karl· Marx tOok. Let .U.s now follow the fortunes of Warren and Proudhori, who took the ·other .road,-the road of .Liberty. This ··brings us to Ana:rchism, which maybe described as tchedCIctrinethatCfll the affairs of men should be managedby individuals or voluntary associations,·and. that the State shoull beaboltshed. When' W-arren, and Proudhon, in prosecuting' .their search 8 INDIVIDUAL LIBER TX for justice to labor, came face to face with the obstacle of class monopolies, they saw that these monopolies rested upon Authority, and concluded that the thing to be done was, not to strengthen this Authority and thus make monopoly uni versal, but to utterly uproot Authori~y and give full sway to the opposite principle, Liberty, by making competition, the antithesis of monopoly, universal. They saw in competition the great leveller of prices to the labor cost of production.

In this they agreed with the political economists. The query then naturally presented itself ... why all prices do not fall. to labor cost; where there is a~y room for incomes acquired otherwise than by labor; in a. word, why the usurer, the re ceiver d£ interest, rent, and profit, exists. The answer was found in the present one,..sidednessof competition. It was discovered that capital had so manipulated legislation that un limited competition is allowed in supplying productive labor, thus keeping wages down to the starvation point, or as near it as practicable; that a great deal of competition is allowed in supplying distributive labor, or the· labor of the mercantile classes, thus keeping, not the prices of goods, but the mer chants' actual profits on them down to a point somewhat approximating equitable wages for the merchants' work; but that almost no competition at all is allowed in supplying capi tal, upon the aid of which both productive and distributive labor are dependent for their power of achievement, thus keeping the rate of interest on money and of house-rent and ground-rent at as high a point as the necessities of the people will bear.

On discovering this, Warrena~d Proudhon charged the political economists with being afraid of their own doctrine. The Manchester men were accused of being inconsistent. They believed in liberty to compete with the laborer in order to reduce his wages, but not in liberty to compete with the capitalist in order to reduce his usury. Laissez faire was very good sauce for the goose, labor, but very poor sauce for the gander, capital. But how to correct this inconsistency, how to serve this gander with this sauce, how to put capital at the service' of business men and labor.ers at cost, or free of usury, -that was the problem. Marx, as we have seen, solved it by declaring capital to be a different thing from product, and maintaining that it beINDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 9 long~dtosociety and should be seized by society and employed for~hebenetit of all alike••Proudhon scoffed,atthis distinction between capital ,and product. He maintained that capital and] product are not different kinds of wealth, but simply alte~nateconditionsor functions. of the same wealth ; that 'all wealth,.,undergoes ,an •incessant . transformation from capital intp, ,product and £rom product back into capital, the •process repe~tingitself interminably; that capital and product -are pUfe;lysocialterms; that what is, product to one man imIDe diat¢ly becomes capital to another, and vice versa;,that if there wer~, but one person.,in the· world, all wealth would. be,to him at,QJJJ;e,capital and product; that the Jruit of A's, toil is his product, which, when sold toB,becomes,.B's capital (unless.

B is: an ,unproductive consumer, in ',which ,case ,it is merely was~ed wealth, outside the view of ,social economy) ; that a stea~-engine is just as much product as a coat, and that a coaf.is just as much capital asa steam-engine; and that the ~a111~ •laws. of eqtlity govern .•the ,'pos$ession of the one ••• that gdv~rn.t.he"possession of the "other. F~r these and 'other reasons Proudhon and Warren found themselves unable to sanction any •such plan ••as the seizure of capital by society. But, though opposed to "socializing the ow,n.ership of papital, they aimed nevertheless to socialize its eff~qts ,by making its use beneficial to all instead of a means ofimpoverishil1g '. the many ,'.to .' enrich. th~ ,few. Andwhen the Jight burst in upon them, they sawithat this could be dOl1e by subjecting capital to ,the natural~aw of, competition, thus hringing the. priceo! its own use down to, cpst,--that is, to ,nothing beyond the expenses incidental to handling '. and transferring, it. ,So they, raised' the' banner of, Absolute Free ' Tra-de; free trade at home', as well as with foreign countries; th~ logical carrying Qut of the ~anc;hest,er doctrine; laissez faire the universal rule." Under, this banner they began their fight uponrnonopolies, whether the all-inclusive monopoly of the State Socialists,.or the various' class monopolies that now' preyail.

Of ,the latter they distinguished four of principal impor tance:themoney monopoly, the land mongpoly, the tariff mo nopoly, and, the patent monopoly. First in the ,importance of its evil.,influence they, considered thetnoneY,rnonopoly, which consists 01 the. privilege given by 10 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY the government to certain individuals, or to indivduals hold ing certain kinds of property, of issuing the circulating me dium, a privilege which is now enforced in this country by a national tax of ten per cent. upon all other persons who at tempt to furnish a circulating medium, and by State laws making it a criminal offence to issue notes as currency. It is claimed that the holders of this privilege control the rate of interest, the rate of rent of houses and buildings, and the prices of goods,-the first directly, and the second and third indi rectly. For, say Proudhon and Warren, if the business of banking were made free to all, more and more persons would enter into it until the competition should become sharp enough to reduce the price of lending money to the labor cost, which statistics show to be less than three-fourths of one per cent.

In that case the thousands of people who are now deterred from' going into business by the ruinously high rates which they must pay for capital with which .to start and carryon business will find their difficulties removed. If they have property which they do not desire to convert into money by sale, a bank will take it as collateral fora loan of a certain proportion of its market value at less than one per cent. dis count. If they have no property, but are industrious, honest, and capable, they will generally be able to get their individual notes endorsed by a sufficient number of known and. solvent parties; and on such business paper they will be able to get a loan at a bank on similarly favorable terms. -Thus inter est will fall at a blow. The banks will really not be lending capital at all, but will be doing business on the capital of their customers, the business consisting in an exchange of the known and widely available credits of the banks for the un known and unavailable, but equally good, credits of the cus tomers, and a charge therefor of less than one per .cent., not as interest for the use of capital, but as pay for I the labor of running the banks. This facility of acquiring capital will give an unheard of impetus to business, and consequently cre ate an unprecedented demand for labor,-a demand which will always be in excess of the supply, directly the contrary of the present condition of the, lahor market. Then will be seen an exemplification of the words of Richard Cobden that, when two laborers are after one employer, wages fall, but when two employers are after one laborer, wages rise. Labo~ INDIV'lDUAL LrBE;RTY II: will then be in a position to dictate its wages, and will thus secure. its natural wage,· its entire product. Thus the same bJow that strikes interest down walsendwages up. .But this is not all. Down will go profits also. FQr merchants, instead of buying at high prices on credit, will borrow money of .the b,anksat less than' one per cent., buy at low prices for ·cash> and corre~pondingly reduce the prices of their goods to their customers.. And with the rest will go hous~-rent.. For no one who can borrow capital at one percent. with which 1:0 build a house of. his own will consent to pay rent to a land IOfd at a higher rate, than that.. Such is the 'vast claim made qyProudhon and Warren as to ,the results '·of the simple abo lition •of the money··monopoly.

Second in importance 'comes the land .monopoly, the· evil effects of which are seen principally in exclusively agricultural countries, like Ireland. This monopoly·,consists,in the enforce ment by government of lalld titles which do not rest upon personal occupancy and cultivation. It was obvious to War~ ren •• andProudhon that, as, soon •. as individualists should· no longer be protected. by their fellows in anything but personal occupancy and, cultivation of land, ground-rent would dis appear,and so usury have one lessleg to stand on. '. Their £01 ;lowers.•of to-day ,are dispose4 to modify this claim to the extent ·of admitting that >the 'very, small fraction of ground rent which rests, not. on. monopoly, but on·,superiority of soil or site,.will continue to exist for 'a· time and perhaps forever, though,tending constantly tpa minimum under conditions of freedom. But the inequality of soils which gives rise to the economic rent of land, like the inequality of human skill which gives rise to the economic rent of ability, is not a ca\!se for serious .alarm eyen. to the most thorough opponent of usury, as its nature is not that of a germ from which other' and graver inequalities may spring, but rather that of a decay ing.branch which may finally wither and fall.

Third, the tariff monopoly, which consists in fostering pr<r du,ction at high prices and under unfavorable cci;nditionsby visiting ,with the penalty of t<txation.those who patronize pro du,ctioIi .at low. prices and under favorable· conditions. The evil to which this monopoly gives·rise might more properly be' calledmisusury than usury, because it compels labqr to pay, not exactly for· the· use of, capital, but rather for the :Q1isuse 12 INDIVIDU AL LIBER TY of capital. The abolition of this monopoly would result in a great reduction in the· prices of all articles taxed, and this saving to the laborers who consume these articles would be another step toward securing to the laborer his natural wage, his entire product. Proudhon admitted, however, that to abolish this monopoly before abolishing the money monopoly would be a cruel ~ and disastrous policy, first, because the evil of scarcity of money, created by the money monopoly, would he intensified by the flow of money out of the country which would be involved in an excess of· imports over exports, and, second, because that fraction of the laborers of the country which is now employed in the protected industries would be turned adrift to face starvation without the benefit of the in satiable demand for labor which a competitive money system would create. Free trade in money at home, making money and work abundant, was insisted upon by Proudhon as a prior condition of free trade in goods with foreign countries.

Fourth, the patent monopoly, which consists in protecting inventors and authors against competition for a period long enough to enable them to extort. from the people a reward enormously in excess of the .labor measure of their services, in other words, in giving certain people a right of property for a term of years in laws and facts of Nature, and the power to exact tribute from others for the use of this natural wealth, which should be open to all.. The abolition of this monopoly ~ would fill its beneficiaries with a wholesome fear of com petition which would cause them to be satisfied with pay for their services equal to that which other laborers get for theirs, and to secure it by placing their products and works on the market at the outset at prices so low that their lines of busi ness would be no more tempting to competitors than any other lines. The development of the economic programme which con sists in the destruction of these monopolies and the substitu tion for them of the freest competition led its authors toa perception of the fact that all their thought rested· upon a very fundamental principle, the freedom of the individual, his right of sovereignty over himself, his products, and his affairs, and of rebellion against the dictation of external authority.

Just as the idea of taking capital away from individuals and giving it to the government started Marx in a path which INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY I) ends in making the government everything and the individual nothing, so the idea of taking capital away from government protected monopolies and putting it within easy reach of all individuals started Warren andProudhonin a path which ends ill making •the individual everything . and the government nothing. .If the individual has a right. to .govern himself, all external government is tyranny. Hence the necessity of abolishing. the State. This was the logical conclusion to which Warren andProudhon. were forced, .a.n.d it bec~u.ne the fundamental article of their political philosophy. It •is the doctrine which Proudhon named Anarchism, a word· derived from. •the Greek, and meaning, not necessarily absence··of order, .. as is.. generally supposed, but· absence of. rule. The Anarchists are simply. unterrified· Jeffersonian Democrats.

They believe that. cCthe best government is that which governs least,"and •that that which governs least. is no government at all.• Even the simple police function of protecting person and property they deny to governments supported by' compul sory taxation. Protection they look upon as a. thing to be se.cured, as. long ·as it is necessary, by voluntary association '3.nd·coOperationfor self-defence,. or as a commodity to be pur chased, like any other commodity? of those who offer the best article at the lowest price. In their vi.ew it is in itself an in vasionofthe individual tocompel'him to pay for or suffer a protection against invasion that he has not asked for and does nOt desire. And they··furthert;;laim· that! protection will become a. drug in themarket,after poverty and consequently , crime, have, disappeared through the realization of their. eco nomi,c programme. Compulsory taxation is. to them the life ptinciple of all the monopolies, .and .passive, but organized, resistance to the tax-collector .they contemplate, .when .the proper. time comes, as one of the most effective methods of accomplishing their purposes.

Thei~ attitude·.on this isa key. to their attitude ·on aU. other questions .. of a' political or social nature. In religion they are atheistic as far. as their own opinions are concerned, for they l09k upon divine authority and· "the. religioussanctiofl .of J1l0ralitx as the chief pretexts put forward by the privileged cl~sses •for the exercise·of human authority. . ccIf God exists,'~ said Proudhon, ,Cthe is man's' enemy." And .in Contrast to V9ltaire's .famous epigram,~clfGod did not exist, it would be 1:4 I N D I V I D U ALL I BE R T Y necessary to invent him," the great Russian Nihilist, Michael Dakounine, placed this antithetical proposition: Hlf God ex isted, it would be necessary to abolish him." But although, viewing the divine hierarchy asa contradiction of Anarchy, they do not believe in it, the Anarchists none the less firmly believe in the liberty to believe in it. Any denial of religious freedom they squarely oppose.

Upholding thus the right of every individual to be or select his own priest, they likewise uphold his right to be or select his own doctor. No monopoly in theology, no monopoly in medicine. Competition everywhere and always; spiritual advice and medical advice alike to stand or fall on their own 'merits. And not only in medicine, but in hygiene, must this principle of liberty be 'followed. The individual may decide tor himself not only what to do to get well, but what to do 1:Q keep well. No external power must dictate to him what; he must and must not eat, drink, wear, or do. N or does the Anarchistic scheme furnish any code of morals to be imposed. upon the individual HMind your own busi ness" is its only moral law. Interference with another's busi ness is a crime and the only crime, and as such may properly he resisted. In accordance with this view the Anarchists look upon attempts to arbitrarily suppress vice as in themselves crimes. They believe liberty and the resultant social well-be ing to be a .sure cure for all the vices. But they recognize the right of the drunkard, the gambler, the rake, and the harlot to live their lives until they shall freely choose to abandon them.

In the matter of the maintenance and rearing of children the Anarchists would neither institute the communistic nur sery which the State Socialists favor nor keep the communistic school system which now prevails. The nurse and the teacher, like the doctor and the preacher, must be selected voluntarily, and their services must be .paid for by those who patronize them. Parental rights must not be taken away, and parental responsibilities must not be foisted upon others. Even in so delicate a matter as that of the relations of the sexes the Anarchists do not shrink from the application of 'their principle. They acknowledge and defend the right of any man and woman, or any men and women, to love each other for as •long or as short a time as they can, will, or maY.J INDIVIDU At LIBERTY 15 To them legal marriage and legal divorce are equal absurdities. They .look forward to a· time when every.individual, whether man .• or woman, shall be self-supporting, and when. each·shall have an independent home of his or her own; whether it be a separate house or rooms inah9use with· others; when' the .love relations between these independent· individuals shall be as varied as are individual·inclinations and attractions; and when the .children born of. these relations shall belortg.. exclusively to the mothers until old enough ,to be1ongto themselves.

Such •are· the main features of the Anarchistic 'social ideal. There is wide difference of opinion among those who hold it as to, the best method of obtaining it. Time forbids' the treatment of'that phase.of the •. subject here. I will. simply caU attention to the fact th~t it is an ide:alutterly inconsistent with that of those Communists who falsely call themselves Anarchjsts while at, the same time advocating a,regime of Archislll fully as despotic as that of the State Socialists them selv~s. 'Afid, it is an ideal that can be as little advanced by the. forcible ·expropriation.recomlllended by.John Most and Prince Kropotkine as retarded by"the brooms··of those Mts. Partingtons of the bench who> sentence them to prison;. an, ideal which the. martyrs of Chicago·,did far more to. help by their '. glorious,death upon the· gallows '. for the common cause of SQchtlislllthan by their unfortunate advocacy during their lives, i~· the name of Anarchism, of force as. a revolutionary agent artdauthority as a safeguard of .the' new' social order.

The Alllarchists' believe i11 liberty both as end and ,means~ and arehostHe. to anything -that antagonizes it. I sh()uld not undertake to summar~ze this altogether too summary exposition of Socialismfrom the standpoint of Anar chism, did 1 not find the task already accomplished for mehy a brilliant French Journalist and historian, Ernest Lesigne,in the form of a series of crisp antitheses; by reading which to you. asa conclusion of this lecture I -hope to deepen the im pression which it has been my endeavor to make. ttThe~eare two Socialisms. ttone,is ~ommunistic, the other solidaritarian• .cfOne·is dictatorial, the other libertarian. :fOne! is.metaphysical, the other positive. nOrte is dogm~tic, the other scientific. «tOne is emotional, the other reflective.

16 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY UOne is destructive, the other constructive. CCBoth are in pursuit of the greatest possible welfare for all. ceOne aims to establish happiness for 'all, the other to enable each to be happy in his own way. ctThe first regards the State' as a society sui generis, of an especial essence, the product of a sort of divine right outside of and above all society, with special rights and able to exact special obediences; the second considers the State as an asso ciation like any other, generally managed worse than others. ctThe :first proclaims the sovereignty of the State, the second recognizes no sort of sovereign. uOne wishes all monopolies to be held by the State; the other wishes the abolition of all monopolies. C(One wishes the governed class to become the governing class; the other wishes the disappearance of classes. ctBoth declare that the existing state of things cannot last.

C(The :first considers revolution as the indispensable agent of evolution; the second teaches that repression alone turns evo lution into revolution. uThe first has faith in a cataclysm. cCThe second knows that social progress will result from the free play of individual efforts. tCBoth understand that we are entering upon a new historic phase. C(One wishes that there $hould be none but proletaires. uThe other wishes that there should be no more proletaires. uThe :first wishes to take everything from everybody. cCThesecond wishes to leave each in possession of its own. cCThe one wishes to expropriate everybody. cCThe other wishes everybody to be a proprietor. ctThe first says: cDo as the government wishes.' ccThe second says: CDo as you wish yourself.' ctThe former threatens with despotism. UThe latter promises liberty. ccThe former makes the citizen the subject of the State. ccThe latter makes the State the employee of the citizen.

ccOne proclaims that labor. pains will be necessary to the birth of the new world. C(The other' declares •that real progress will not cause su:ffer~ ing to anyone. UThe first has confidence in social war.

INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY UThe other believes only in the works of peace. f:COne .;tspires'to command,toregulate, to legislate. (CThe other wishes to attain the· minimum of command, of regulation, of legislation. (COne would be followed by the most atrocious of reactions'l uThe other opens.unlimited horizons to progress. (CThe first will fail; .. the other will·succeed. (tBoth desire equality. uOne by lowering heads that are' too high. (tThe other by raising heads that· are· too low. ttOne sees equality under a common yoke. ttThe other will secure equality in complete liberty. «tOne is intolerant, the other tolerant. «tOne frightens, .. theotherl'eassures. uThe first wishes to instruct everybody. uThesecond wishes to enable' everybody to instruct him..; self. UThe first wishes to support everybody. ~tThe second wishes to enable everybody to support himself. nOne says: ttThe land to the State. ttThe mine to the State.

uThe tool to the State. ctThe product· to the State. UTheother says: ttThe land to the cultivator. (tThe mine to· the miner. (tThe tool to ·the laborer. (tThe product to the producer. ttThere are only these two Socialisms. UOne is the infancy of Socialism; the other in its manhood. <tOne is already the past; .. the other is the. future. uOnewill give place ·to the oth¢r. (CTo-day each of us must choos~ for one or the other of these two SocialisJl1s,or else confess' that he is not a Socialist." POSTSCRIPT Forty •years ago, when •the foregoing essay .was writ ten, the denial of competition had not yet effected the enor mous concentration of wealth that now so gravely threatens social order. It was not yet too late to stem. the currento£ August I I, 1926. 18 INDIVIDU AL LIBERTY accumulation by a reversal of the policy of monopoly. The Anarchistic remedy was still applicable. Today the way is not so clear. The four monopolies, un hindered, have made possible the modern development of the trust, and the trust is now a monster which, I fear, even the freest banking, could it be instituted, would be unable to de stroy. As long as the Standard Oil group controlled only fifty :millions of dollars, the institution of free competition. would have crippled it hopelessly; it needed the money monopoly for its sustenance and its growth. Now that it controls, directly and indirectly, perhaps ten thousand millions, it sees in the money monopoly a convenience, to be sure, but no longer a necessity. It can do without it. Were all restrictions upon banking to be removed, concentrated capital could meet suc cessfully the new situation by setting aside annually for sacri fice a sum that would remove every competitor from the field.

If this be true, then monopoly, which can be controlled permanently only by economic forces, has passed for the mo ment beyond their reach, and must be grappled with for a time solely by forces political or revolutionary. Until meas ures of forcible confiscation,. through the State or in defiance of it, shall have abolished the concentrations that monopoly has created, the economic solution proposed by Anarchism and outlined in the foregoing pages-and there is no: otper solution-will remain a thing to be taught to the rising gen eration, -ehat conditions may be favorable to its application after the great levelling. But education is a slow process, and for this reason we must hope that the day of readjustment may not come too quickly. Anarchists who endeavor to hasten it by joining in the propaganda of State Socialism or revolu tion· make a sad mistake indeed. They help to so force the march of events that the people will not have time to find out, by the study of their experience, that their troubles have been due to the rejection of competition. If this Jesson shall not be learned in sea.son, the past will be repeated in the fu ture, in which case we shall have to turn for consolation to the doctrine of Nietzsche that this is bound to happen any how, or to the reflection of Renan that, from the point of view of Sirius, all these matters are of little moment.

B. R. T.

INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 19 The foregoing postscript was originally written in 191 I. Today Mr. Tucker sees .fit to modify it to its present form~ which makes it. unavoidably i111Ply that 'the aboli tionofall four of the great mOllopoliescould even now loosen the grip of capitalism. His statement amounts to the prediction that the inauguration offreebanking t which IndividualistAn~rchists comJ1lonly anticipate as "the first step in "the realizationottreec1oID, would not alone achieve that result.· But it should be recorded that the· editor of. this book, and those·other adherents to· the ideas set Jorth in it, who by their advice and otherwise have aided him in the. task~ ,do. not share .Mr. Tucker~s pessimism. Unlike him, they have been in intimate con tact with the industrial and .commercial life of the United States .for the past two decades and have th~re fore been able to observe that the trend of· events-is ~ot now inevitably toward .either State confiscation or revo lution .. The enormous strides .made by voluntary asso ciation, especially among those opposed.to the domination of capitalism,· point the way clearly .to the peaceful elimination of the financial·oligarchy "Wllichnow. rules thenation.~The Editor. 11-.THE INDIVIDUAL, SOCIETY, AND THE STATE THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO THE INDIVIDUAL The following is an address by Mr. Tucke'r delivered before the Unitarian Ministers' Institute, at the annual session held in Salem, Mass., October 14, 1890. On ac count of the clear and concise manner in which the sub ject is treated, it may well engage the attention of any student seeking to understand Anarchism: LADIES AND GENTLEMEN:-Presumably the honor which you have done me in inviting me to address yeu to-day upon ((The Relation of the State to the Individual" is due princi pally to the fact that circumstances have combined to make me somewhat conspicuous as an exponent of the theory of Modern Anarchism,-a theory which is coming to be more and more regarded as one of the few that are tenable as a basis of political.and social life. In its name, then, I shall speak to you in discussing this question, which either under lies or closely touches almost every practical problem that confronts this generation. The future of the tariff, of taxa tion, of finance, of property, of woman, of marriage, of the family, of the suffrage, of education, of invention, of liter ature, of science, of the arts, of personal habits, of private character, of ethics, of religion, will be determined by the conclusion at which mankind shall arrive as to whether and how far the individual owes allegiance to the State.

Anarchism, in dealing with this subject, has found it neces sary, first of all, to define its terms. Popular conceptions of the terminology of politics are incompatible with the rigor2.0 INDIVIDU.8.L LIBERTY 2.:£ ous. exactness required in scientific investigation •.. To be sure~ .3. departure from the popular use of language is accompanied by the •risk. of misconception by themultitude,who persist ently ignore.·the new. definitions; •• but,· on the other hand~ conformity thereto is attended by the still more. deplorable alternative of confusion in the eyes of the competent, who would be justified in attributing inexactness of thought where there is inexactness of expression. Take the term (CState," for instance, with •which we are especially concerned to-day••It is .a.word .. that is· on· every lip..•But how many of those who use it have any idea of.what they mean by it? 11nd, of the few who have, how various· are .their conceptions! We desig nate. by the term ((State" institutions that em1;>ody absolutism in its extreme form and institutions that temper it with more or lessliberality •• We .apply the word 'alike to institutions that do' nathing butaggress . and. to institutions that, besidesag gressing, to some extent protect and defend. But· which. is the. State's essential· function, aggression·. or defence, few seem to know or care.· Some •champions .of·the State evidently consider •••aggression· its .. principle, .although they disguise .. it alike from themselves .and .from the people .under. the •.'term C(administration," which they wish to extend· in· every possible direction. Others, on thecontfary, consider defence. its .prin ciple, and wish to limit it accordingly. to the performance of police duties. Still others seem. to think. that it exists for b()th .aggression .. and defence, combined.·.in Tarying .propor tionsaccording to the momentary interests" or maybe only whims, ofthose happening to control it. Brought face to face with these diverse views, .the Anarchists, whose mission in the world is the abolition of aggression and all the evils that re sult therefrom, perceived that, to be understood, they. must at~ach .some definite and.·avowed significance to the •terms which they are obliged to employ, and especially to the words «State" and Hgovernment." .Seeking, then, the elements com...

mon to all the institutions to which the name UState " has been applied, •. they' have found them two in number: :fir~t, agres si<.)n;second, the assu,mptionof sol~ authority over a 'given area and all within it, exercised generally for the double pur pose ·()fmore complete oppression of its subjects and. exten sion of its boundaries. .That this. second. element is !common to all States, I think, will not bedenied,-at le~st, lam not 2.2 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY aware that any State has ever tolerated a rival State within its borders; and it seems plain that any State which should do so would thereby cease to be a State and to be considered as such by any. The exercise of authority over the same area by two States is a contradiction. That the nrstelement, aggression, has been and is common to all States will probably be less generally admitted. Nevertheless, I shall not attempt to l;'e-enforce here the conclusion of Spencer,which is gaining wider acceptancedaily,-that the State had its origin in ag gression, and has continued as an aggressive institution from its· birth. Defence was an afterthought, prompted by ne cessity; and its introduction as a State function, though ef fected doubtless with a view to the strengthening of· the State, was really and in principle the initiation of the State's destruction. Its growth in importance is but an evidence of the tendency of progress toward the abolition of the State.

Taking this view of the matter, the Anarchists contend that defence is·not an essential of the State, but that aggression· is. Now what is aggression? Aggression is simply another name for government. Aggression, invasion, government, are inter convertible terms. The essence of government is control, or the attempt to control. He who attempts to control another is a governor, an aggressor, an invader;· and the nature of such invasion is not changed, whether it is made by one man upon another man, after the manner of the ordinary criminal, or by one man upon all other men, after the manner of an abso lute monarch, or by all other men upon one man, after the manner of a modern democracy. On the other hand, he who resists another's attempt to control is not an aggressor, an invader, a governor, but simply a defender, a protector; and the nature of such resistance is not changed whether it be offered by one man to another man, as when one repels a criminal's onslaught, or by one man to all other men, as when one declines to obey an oppressive law, or by all men to one man, as when a subject people rises against a despot, or as when the members of a community voluntarily unite to re strain a criminal. This distinction between invasion and re sistance, between government and defence, is vital. Without it there can be no valid philosophy of politics. Upon this dis tinction and the other considerations just outlined, the An archists frame the desired definitions. This, then, is· the An...

INDIVIDUAL LIBER TYz3' ~rchistic definitionofgovern~ent: the subjection Qfthe non invasive indivi1ual to~n external .will. ,,'And this, is .the A~" arcpistic debnitionof the St~te: the embodiment of theprin .. ciple of, invasion in an individual, orahanq of individuals, assJll11,ing to ac;t' asrepresentative~or m~sters of the ,entire pe~ple'within ,a given area., -As to the meaning of the remain .. ins term j~ the subject ullder discussion, the word Hindivid ual,"I think therei~ Jittledifficulty. ,Putting aside the subtle tie,s,.in which •• (:ertain,pletaphysicians .have. indulged, one may use this word without danger ofbei~g' misunderstood. WlIether -:the definitions thus arrived at prove geherallyac Iceptableo5J;1ot is.a ,.matter o£ 'minor" conseCJ.uence. 'r submit :that they ar~ reached:s,~,ientifica.lly, ,and serve the purposeo£ a •c;lea.r.• conveya11.ce,of thought. ,The Anarchists, having by t~i.r •adoption ~aken due <:are to be explicit, '. are. entitled to have their ideas judged in, the light of these definitions.

'-!'Tow comes the question proper: What relations should ex: ist between the State andt~eln.divid\1al? 'The general method of determining these is tQ apply some theory of ethics involv ingabasis of moralopligation. ',~n this 111ethod,the Anarch is~~ have no confidence. , 'The idea of moral ob1igatio~, of inherent rights .anq duties, tbey totally discard. •They look \lp0p. all obligations, not .as moral, but .as soeial,andeven then not really as obligations except ,as these have been.con sCi9us1y ang voluntarilya,s$umed. ,I£a man, makes an, agree mellt with men, th~ ,latter' may. combine to hold him to his agreement; but, in the. absence of such agreement, no man, so Jar as the A~archists, are aware, has made· any agreement with God {)r with any othe~powerofany order whatsoever. The Anarchists are not only utilitarians, but egoists in the farthest and fullest sense.,. So •• far, as inherent right is con cerned, "might is ·its only 'measure. Any. :man, be his name Bi.H Sykes or Alexander 'R.omanoff" and .• any set of men~ i whether the Chinese highbinders or the. Congress of the United States, have theright rif ,they have the power,.to kill or coerce other ',111enand-to,.m~ke the entire world_subservient to their cnps. ,.SocieFY'srig~t'toe.llslavethe •individual and the ,indi "Vid~at~~ right t{)enslave society are unequal-only becausetheir poweJrs•are ,un~qual.. ,.. ,This ,position being subversive of,. all sy~tetn$ofr~ligion .'and.,morality', of course 1 cannot expect to win .immediate assent thereto :from the audience 'which, I '24 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y am addressing to-day; nor does the time at my disposal allow me to sustain it by an elaborate, or even a summary, exami nation of the foundations of ethics. Those who desire a greater familiarity with this particular phase of .the subject should read a profound German work, teDer Einzige und sein Eigenthum," written years ago by a comparatively unknown all-thor, Dr. Caspar Schmidt, whose nom de plume was Max Stirner. Read only by a few scholars, the book is buried in obscurity, but is destined toa resurrection that perhaps will mark an epoch.

If this, then, were a question of right, it would be, ac cording to the Anarchists, purely a question of strength. But, fortunately, it is not a question of right: it is a question of expediency, of knowledge, of science,-the science of living together, the science of society. The hjstory of humanity has been largely one long and gradual discovery. of the fact that the individual is the gainer by society exactly in propor tion as society is free, and of the law that ,the condition of a permanent and harmonious society is the greatest amount of individual liberty compatible with equality of libeJ;"ty. The average man of each new generation has said to himself more clearly and consciously than his predecessor: teMy neighbor is not my enemy, but· my friend,. and I am his, if we would but mutually recognize the fact. We help each other to a better, fuller, happier living; and this service might be greatly increased if we would cease to restrict, hamper, and oppress each other. Why can we not agree to let each live his own life, neither of us transgressing the limit that separates our in...

dividualities?" It is by this reasoning that mankind is ap proaching the real social contract, which is not, as Rousseau thought, the origin of society, but rather the outcome' of a long social experience, the fruit of its follies and disasters. It is obvious that this contract, this social law, developed to its perfection, excludes all aggression, all violation of equality of liberty, all invasion of every kind. Considering this contract in connection with the Anarchistic definition of the State as the embodiment of the principle of invasion, we see that the State is antagonistic to society; and, spciety being essential to individual life and development, the. conclusion leaps,,' to the eyes that the relation of the State to the individual and of the INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 25 individual to the Sl:~te must be one of hostility, enduring till the State shall perish. ((But," it will beas.ked of the .Anarchists at this point in the argument, Uwhat'shallbe done withthose~ndividuals who undoubtedly will persist in .violating the.social law •• by invading their neighbors?" ·..... The Anarchists answer .• that the: abolition of the· St:ate.will.leave in existence a defensive association,.rest.,in,gn Q longer on a compulsory but onavoluntary basis, which ,will restrain invaders by any m~~ns th~tmay prove .necessary.

((But that is what we have now," is. the rejoinder. UYou really want,thetl,·. only a change .ofname?" Not .so fast, please. Can it he soberly pretended for a moment that the State, /even as it exists herein America, is purely a defensive institu tion? ..•.Surely not, save.by those who .. see of •the State only its most palpable manifesta~ion,--the. policeman on the. street corner.·.Alld.o.newould not .have to watch him very closely to see the. error of this claim. Why, .the very first act of the State,thecompulsoryassessmental1dcollection -0£ taxes, is itself an •aggression,.•• a .• violation ofeq uallibetty, and, .• a,s •such, vitiates every subsequent .act, even those acts which would be purely defensive if paid out of a treasury filledbyvolun ta}:ycontributions ..•.' How. is .it possible to. sanctiOl~l, under the law of equal liberty , the confiscation of a maQ.'se~rningsto pay .. for protection. whichhe •. has not. sought and. does not desire? And, if. this is. an outrag~"what· name shall we .give to such •confiscation .whenthe.yictim is given, instead.of .br~ad, a stone, instead of protection, oppression? To force a man to pay for the violation of .his. own .liberty is indeed an addi tion of insult to injury~ .But that is •• exactly. what. the State is doing.. Read the ((Congressional Record"; follow the pro c.ee9ings•of the State .. legishttures;. examine our statute-books; test each act separately by the lawoi (equal Iiberty,-you will ~nd that ..a •good .!line-tenths of existing legislation serves, not to enforce that fundamentaL social law, but either to prescribe the individual's personal habits, or, worse. still, to create and sustain •• commercial, industrial, .. financial,.and proprietary mo nopolies which deprive labor of. a large part .of.the reward ~ that. it .would receive·.ina .• perfectly. free market. (tTo .be g()verned," s~ysProudhon, (tis to be watched, inspected,. spied, dir~cted, law-ridden, regulated, ..penned up,. indoctrinated, ~6 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T ~ preached at, checked, appraised, sized, censured, commanded, by beings who have neither title nor knowledge nor virtue.

To be governed is to have every operation, every transaction every .movement noted~ registered, counted, rated, stamped, measured, numbered, assessed, licensed, refused, authorized, indorsed, admonished, prevented, reformed, redressed, cor rected. To be governed is, under pretext of public utility and in the name of the general interest, to be laid under contribution, drilled, fleeced,.exploited, monopolized, extorted from, exhausted, hoaxed; robbed; then, upon the slightest re sistance, at the first word of complaint, to be repressed, fined, vilified, annoyed, hunted down, pulled about, beaten~ dis armed, bound, imprisoned, shot, mitrailleused, judged, con demned, banished, sacrificed, sold, betrayed, and, to crown all, ridiculed, derided, outraged, dishonored." And I am sure I do not need to point out to you the existing laws that corre spond to and justify nearly every count in Proudhon's long indictment. How thoughtless, then, to assert that the ex isting political order is ofa purely defensive character instead of· the aggressive State which the Anarchists aim to abolish!

This leads to another consideration that bears powerfully upon the problem of the invasive individual, who is such a bugbear to the opponents of Anarchism. Is it not such treat ment as has just been described that is largely responsible for his existence? I have heard or read somewhere of an inscrip tion written for a certain charitable institution: UThis hospital a pious person built, But first he made the poor wherewith to fill't." And so, it seems tome, it is with our prisons. They are filled with criminals which our virtuous State has made what they are by its iniquitous laws, its grinding monopolies, and the horrible social conditions that result from them. We enact many laws that manufacture criminals, and then a few that punish them. Is it too much to expect that the new social conditions which must .follow the abolition of all in terference with the production and distribution of wealth will in the end so change the habits and propensities of men that our jails and prisons, our policemen and our soldiers,-.-in a word, our whole machinery and outfit of defence,-will be INDI,VID.UAL LIBERTY 2.7.

superfluous? That, at least, is the Anarchists' belief~ It sounds . Utopian, but it '. really, rests on severely ,economic grounds. To-day, however, 'time is lacking to explain the Anarchistic view of the dependence.of usury,' and, therefore of poverty, upon monopolistic privilege, especially the banking privilege, and to show how an intelligent minority, educated in the prin ciple of Anarchism' and .', determined to exercise that right to ignore the. State upon '. which Spencer, in his uSociaIStatics," soa.bly and admirably insists, might, by setting at, defiance.the National and State banking prohibitions, :;lIld establishing a Mutual Bank in competition with' the existing ,monopolies, 1;ak~ the first and most important step in the abolition of usury and, of the State. Simple.as such.a step would 'seem, from it aU'the rest would •follow.. A .half -hour is"a very short time in which to discuss, the relation of the State to the individ~al,. and I must ask your pardon for the brevity of my dealing with a succession of con siderations each of which.needs an entire essay for its, develop ment.· " If!" have, outlined the argument intelligibly, I have accomplished, all that I. expected. But, ,in the hope of· iJ.1l pr~ssingthe idea of the true social contract more .vividly upon your minds, in conclusion I shall take the liberty of reading another page from Proudhon, towhomT am indebted for most of what I know, or' think I know, upon this subject.

CoIltrasting authority with free" c()ntract, he says, .in his ~~General !dea·>of ..' the Revolution of the NineteenthCen tury":tCOfthedistancethat separates these tworegimes,we may judge by thedi£ference in their styles. ((One of the most solemn -momen.tsin the evolution of .the principle of authority is that of the promulgation of the Decalogue. The voice of the ang~lcommands the People, prostrate at the foot of Sin.ai:~ (CThousnalt worship the Eternal, and only the Eternal. (CTllou shalt swear only by him. uThoushalt keep his holidays, and thou shalt pay his.tithes. '(CThou shalt honor thy father and thy mother . .~cThou shalt not •kill. (CTh&u shalt not ~teal. wfhoushalt nOt commit_adultery,. cCThoushalt not bear false witness.

28 IN D I V ID U ALL I B E R T Y HThou shalt not covet or calumniate. HFor the ,Eternal ordains it, and it is the Eternal who has made you what you are. The Eternal is alone sovereign, alone wise, alone worthy; the Eternal punishes and rewards. It is in the power of the/Eternal to render you happy or unhappy at his will. HAll legislations have adopted this style; all, speaking to man,. employ· the sovereign. formula. The Hebrew commands in the future, the Latin in the ~mperative, the Greek in the infinitive. The moderns do not otherwise. The tribune of the parliament-house is a Sinai as infallible and as terrible as that of Moses; whatever the law may be, from whatever lips it may come, it is sacred once it has been proclaimed by that prophetic trumpet, which with us is the majority. <tThou shalt not assemble. HThou shalt not print. HThou shalt not read. HThou shalt respect thy representatives and thy officials, which the hazard of the ballot or the good pleasure of the State shall have given you.

HThou shalt obey the· laws which they in their wisdom shall have made. HThou shalt pay thy taxes faithfully. HAnd thou shalt love the Government, thy Lord and thy God, with all thy heart and with all thy soul and with all thy mind, because the Government knows better than thou what thou art, what thou. art worth,' what is good for thee, and because it has the power to chastise those who disobey its commandments, as well as to reward unto the fourth genera tion those who make themselves agreeable to it. «With the Revolution it is quite different. HThe search for first causes and for final causes is elimi nated from economic science as from the natural sciences. HThe idea of Progress replaces, in philosophy, that of the Absolute. «Revolution succeeds Revelation. HReason, assisted by Experience, discloses to man the laws of Nature and Society; then it says to him:HThese laws are those of necessity itself. No man has made them; no man imposes them upon you. They have been INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY, 2.9 gradually discoyered,and I exist only to bear testimony to them.

t~Ifyou9~serve the11l,yo\1willlJe just and good. ~~IfiYou violate them, you will.be unjust and wicked. eCI ~~er. you no other motive. uAlready, among your. fellows, several have recognized that justicq is better, for each and for all,than iniquity; and ~hey have agreed with each.other to mutually keep faith a~d right, -th~t is" to respect the rules of transaction which the nature o£· thi:p.gs indicates to them as .alone capable of assuring·them, inth~Jargest'JFeasure, well..being, security, peace. uD, you wish to adhere to their c01llpact, to forma part of their ~ocie~y? (CDb you promise to respect the. honor, the liberty, and the goods.of ·your bro~he:rs? (~po youprori1ise never t~appropriate, either by violence, or by fraud,orbyusury, or by.speculation, the product or the possession·iof another? ... ...•..... .. . uDo.you promise.never to.lie and, deceive,-either. in •justice, orin business,or inanyo£ your .transactions?

uYou are free to accept orto.ref llse, Ulf you refuse, you become a part·of the society of sa'V· ages. Outside of the communion of the human race, you be. come.an.ohj'ect ofsuspicio ll.• Nothing protects you.. At the sli?htest huult, thefirst'comer may.· li,ft his hand ag~instyou without i tlcurringally other .aceusationl than that. of cruelty lleedlesslypra~ticedupon a brute. i uOllthe ..• contrary, if you swear to ~ecompact, you·.be,~;:i~~~i:£erii:~~~i~l :t,~e;o~~o;eYi~~a:~: f~iendship, .•.aid, service, .,. exch~nge... .In Aase.. of infraction, on their,part ot' .on •Y0tlrs~. througb negIigen~e, .passion, or malice, Y0'l1arere~p()nsibletoeachotherfor the Namageas well as the scandalangthe insecurity of.whichyoul h~ve been the cause: thisr~sponsibility may extend, accordinglto the gravity of the peor;llryor t~e repetition~ of the offence,I even to excommunication and to death.. ... '.. .. ..1 ~cThe law .isclear,. the!)anction. still mqreso. Three articles, which make but. one,..-that is· the wholelsocial contract ..•In ste~d. .. 9f 1l'lakil;lg ,oath to' God and. his prince,., the. citizen 3° ~N])IVIDU,AL LIBERTY swears upon his conscience, before his brothers, and before Humanity. Between these two oaths there is the same dif..

terence as between slavery and liberty, faith and science, courts and justice, usury and labor, government and economy ~ non-existence and being, God and man.~' LIBERTY'S DECLARAnON OF PURPOSE Volume I, No. I, of Liberty appeared on August '6, 188 I, and here is its salutatory: LmERTY enters the field of journalism to speak for herself because she finds no one willing to speak for her. She hears no voice that alwayscharrtpions her; she knows no pen that always writes in her defence; she sees no hand that is always lifted to avenge her wrongs or vindicate her rights. Many claim to speak in her name, but few really understand her. Still fewer have the courage and the opportunity to consist ently fight for her. Her battle, tpen, is her own, to wage and win. She accepts it fearlessly and with a determined spirit. Her foe, Authority, takes many shapes, but, broadly speak ing, her enemies divide themselves i!lto three classes: first, those who abhor her both as a means and as an end of progress, opposing her openly, avowedly, sincerely, consistently, univer sally; second, those who profess to believe in her as ~ means of progress, but who accept her only so far as they think she will subserve their own selfish interests, denying her and her blessings to the rest of the world; third, those who distrust her as a means of progress, believing in her only as an end to be obtained by first trampling upon, violating, and outraging her. These three phases of opposition to Liberty are met in almost every sphere of thought and human activity. Good representatives of the first are seen in the Catholic Church and the Russian autocracy; of the second, in the Protestant Church and the Manchester school of .. politics and political economy; of the third, in the atheism of Gambetta and the socialism of Karl Marx.

Through these' forms of authority another line of demarca tion runs transversely, separating the divine from the human; INDIVIDUAL LIBE.RTY ;3:£ or better still, the religious.'from the secular. Liberty'svic tory over the fortn~r is well-nigh achieved. Last century Vol taire brought the authority of the supernatural into .dis repute. The Church has peen declining ever· since. Her teeth areetrawn, and though she seems still to show hereaJild there vigorous signs of life, she does so in the violence of the death agony upon her, and soon her power .will be felt no more. It ishuttlanauthority that .hereafter is to he dreaded, •and the State, its organ, that~n the .. future is. t6 be fe~ted. Tho~~ who hayelost their faith in gods.only to put it. in gove!'nments; tliosewho have ceased to he Church-'worshippersonly to be come State-worshippers'; those who have .abandoneq pope for king. or czar, and priest for .president or .parliament,-have indeed changed their hattle-group-d, but none the less are foes ofLihertystil1r~The Church has 1l>ecome an ohject of derision; tIte State must be, made equally so-The State is saidhysome to.~e a unecessary evil"; it mus1i.be.made unnecessary.. This cep;tury's battle, then, is with the State: the State, that de ba.sesman; the< State, that prostitutes woman; the State; that corrupts. children;' the State, that trammels .love; the. State~ 'that stifles thought; the. State, that monopolize$ land; the State., that 'limits credit; the State,. that restricts .e:x;change~ . t~~ State,. tha~ gives.idle capital the power of, increase,..,and, tHrough interest, rent" profit, 'and. taxes, robs' industrious Iaporofits products. . ". . .. " • 'ifIow the State does thcsethings, and how it can be p~e..

v~nted from doing them, Liberty. proposes .to .• snowin'l1}ore detail hereafter in. the prosecution of her purpose. Enpt1gh to say now that monopoly and .privilege. must be destro}"~d, Qpportuni~y. afforded, .. and competition~ncouraged.·. ·This is Liberty's work, and ((Down with Authority" her war-cry. l\NARCH:ISM AND THE STATE Mr. Henry Appleton, one of Liberty'sorlginal edi t:oriaL~ontrihU:tors, was obliged to ce.ase to act in that c:l'pacity when lie took a position not ill.harmony with that of the editor ana point of great importance,whereat 32 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY he later complained, and tried to explain his view of the controversy. In answering him Mr. Tucker dealt with some essential questions of principle: I DO NOT admit anything except the existence of the individual, as a condition of his sovereignty. To say that the sovereignty of the individual is conditioned by Liberty is simply another way of saying that it is conditioned by itself.

To condition it by the cost principle is equivalent to insti tuting the cost principle by authority,-an attempted fusion of Anarchism with State Socialism which I have always under stood Mr. Appleton to rebel against. It is true that the affirmation of individual sovereignty is logically precedent to protest against authority as such. But in practiCe they are inseparable. To protest against the in vasion of individual sovereignty is· necessarily to affirm indi vidual sovereignty. The Anarchist always carries his base of supplies with him. He cannot. fight away from it. The moment he does so he becomes an Archist. This protest contains all the affirmation that there is. As I have pointed out to Comrade Lloyd, Anarchy has no side that is affirma tive in the sense of constructive. Neither as Anarchists nor-what is practically the same thing-as individual sov ereigns have we any constructive work to do, though as pro gressive beings we have plenty of it. But, if we had perfect liberty, we might, if we chose, remain utterly inactive and still be individual sovereigns. Mr. Appleton's unenviable experi ences aJ;e due to no mistake of mine, but to his own folly in acknowledging the pertinence of the hackneyed cry for con struction, which loses none of its nonsense on the lips of a Circuit Court Judge.

I base my assertion that the Chicago Communists are not Anarchists entirely on the ground that Anarchism means a protest against every form of invasion. (Whether this definition is etymologically correct I will show in the next paragraph. ) Those who protest against the existing political State, with emphasis on the existing, are not Anarchists, but Archists. In objecting to a special form or method of in... vasion, they tacitly acknowledge the rightfulness of some other form or method of invasion.Proudhon never fought a~y particl:a~:ta::l~~~~f :::i:S:t:t~oo itS¢1£.3a: necessarily negative of individual sovereignty, whatever form it .may, take'•• ,,'His. use of'. the. word Anarchism •• shows.,that ,.he considered, it coextensive with',individual sovereign.ty.'., ,If his application's of it were directed against political government, it~as because <he considered political government the only invader of individual sovereignty worth talking abou.t,having neJknowledge of Mr. Appleton's ttcomprehensivephilosophy,"

wpich thinks it takes cognizance ofa (tvaSt mountain of gov ernmentoutside of. the organized State.", ••,The ,reason why Most••. and ••Parsons are, not Anarchists, while. I am one, "is be caus,etheir Communism is another •State, while my voluntary co-o1?erationis not a State at aU. ' It. is a ,very easy matter to tell who' is an Anarchist and who is not., One questiohwill always readily decide it. ,Do you, believe in any form o£illl p()sition upon •• the hu11lanwill by force? ,If youdo,you;lre not all.Anarchist. , If you do not, you are' an ,Anarchist. '. What call anyone ask more reliable, more scientific, than this? Anarchy does,.not mean simply. opposed 'to the ... arcbos, pr,)?olitic,alleader., It means'opposed toarchE. Now". arche, in the first instance, means beginning, origin. From ,this it co1n,es.to mean a first principle, an element; ,then first place, supreme power, sovereignty, ," dominion, command" authority; an.dfinallya sovereignty, an empire,arealm, amagistracy,a go~ernmenJal office. Etymologically, "then, the word anarchy may have. several. meanings, ,among them, as Mr. Appleton s~ys, .'Without guiding principle, .and to this use of the word I haye never objected, always striving, on the contrary, to in terpret in accordance with their definition the th0ught of those "\VUO ,so" use it. But the word Anarchy as a philosophical,term . and the word Anarchist as the name of a philosophical. sect 'Were ttrst appropriated in the. sense of, opposition to dominion, to, authority, and are so held by right of occupancy, which fact makes any other philosophical,use of them improper and •con fusing. Therefore, as Mr. Appleton does not make the polit ical sphere coextensive with. dominion or authority, he cannot claim that Anarchy, .when extended •••beyond the political sphere, necessarily comes, to' mean without. guiding principle, for it may mean, and by appropriation does mean, without dominion, withoutauthority ..Consequently it isa term which completely and. scientifically covers the individualistic ,'protest.

34 INDIVIDUAL LIBER TY I could scarcely name a wor~ that has been more abused, misunderstood, and misinterpreted than Individualism. Mr. Appleton makes so palpable a point against himself in in stancing the Protestant sects that it is really laughable to see him try to use it against me. However it may be with the Protestant se~ts, the one great Protestant body itself was born of protest, suckled by protest, named after protest, and lived on protest untilthe days of its usefulness were over. If such instances proved anything, plenty of them might be cited· against Mr. 4ppleton. For example, taking one of more re cent date, I might pertinently inquire which contributed most to the freedom of the negro,-those who defined themselves through their affirmations as the Liberty Party or as Coloniza tionists, or those who defined themselves through their protests as the Anti-Slavery Society or as Abolitionists. Unquestion ably the latter. And when human slavery in all its forms sflall have disappeared, I fancy that the credit of the victory will be given quite as exclusively to the Anarchists, and" that these latter-day Colonizationists, of whom Mr. Appleton has suddenly become so enamored, will be held as innocent of its overthrow as are their predecessors"and namesakes of the over throw of chattel slavery.

It is to be regretted that Mr. Appleton took up so much space with other matters that he could not turn his ttflood of light" into my ((delusion" that the State is the efficient cause of tyranny over individuals; for the question whether this" is a delusion or not is the very heart of the issue between us. He has asserted that there is a vast mountain of government outside of the organized State, and that our chief battle is with that; I, on the contrary, have maintained that practically; almost all"the authority against which we have to contend is exercised" by the State, and that, when "we have abolished the State, the struggle for individual sovereignty will b~ well-nigh over. I have shown that Mr. Appleton, to maintain his posi tion, m.ust point out this vast mountain of government and tell us definitely what it is and how it acts, and this is what the readers of Liberty have been waiting to see him do. But he no more does it in his last article than in his first. And his only attempt to dispute my statement that the State is the efficient cause of tyranny over individuals is confined to two or three sentences which culminate in the conclusion that the INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 3S initial cause is the surrendering individual. I have never de nied it, and am charmed by the airofinnocence.with'which this substitution of initial for efficient iseffected.• Of initial causes finite intelligence knows nothing; it ,can only know ca,uses•• as more or less rem,ote. But using the .word .initial in the, sense of remoter,. I 'am, willing. to admit, for the .sake of the argument (though ~t is .not a settled 'matter) '. that the initial cause was the suctendering individual. Mr. Appleton doubtless,·:means_ voluntar~ly •surrendering individual, for com pulsory surrender would 'imply the prior- ~xistence of a power to exact it, or a prill1itiveform of State. But the State, hav ingcome into. existence. through such voluntary surrender, becomes apositive,$tr~ng, growin,.g, encroaching insti~ution, )Vhichexpands, noeby further voluntary surrenders, but by exacting surrenders ,from its individual subjects,and.which contracts only as they successfully rebel. ,That, atanyrate,is what it is to-day, and hence it is the efficient cause of tyranny.

The only sense, then, in which it is true that uthe individual is the proper objective' point of' r~£ormu is this,-thathe must be.penetrated with t~e. Anarchistic idea and •taught to rebel. But this is not .what Mr. Appleton means. Ii it were, his 'criticism would not be pertinent" for I have.never advocated any .other •method ,.of abolishing the State. The logic of his position compels another interpretation of his words,-namely that the State .cannot .disappear, until the individual is per fected. In saying -, which, Mt. Appleton _joins hands., with [those wise, persons whoad1l1it that. Anarchy will. be ,practi :cable when the millennium arrives.. It is an utterahandon :mentof ·,Anarchistic·Socialism,... Nodop.bt. it.,is. true tha.t,. if ithe individual could perfect h~mself while1:he barriers to his 1perfection are stanq.ing,the State WQuid <a£terw~ards disappear. Perhaps, too, he, could go '. to· heaven, if.he could Iifthimself ' by his boot-straps. ._ .. 1 ; If . one' must favor colonization, ori localization, as Mr.

l'Appleton calls it, as a result, of looking!useriously" into these :rp.atters, th~n he must have bee? tr~~inc?1 withthemfor a long t1tne. ',He has combated colonlzatlon'lt!t these columns mor~ .vigorously than ~ver I did or can,al1d 116t until comparatively lately didlle write anything seeming to favor it. Even then he declared tha t he was not given over to the idea, ,and seemed only.to be making a tentative.venture·into a region, which 'he 36 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY had not before explored. If he has since become a settler, it only indicates to my mind that he has not yet fathomed· the real cause of the people's wretchedness. That cause is State interference with. natural economic .processes. The people are poor and robbed and enslaved, not because Uindustry, com merce, and domicile are centralized,"-in fact, such centrali zation has, on the whole, greatly benefited them,-but because the control of the conditions under which industry, commerce, and domicile are exercised and enjoyed is centralized. The localization needed is not the localization of persons in space, but of powers in persons,-that is, the restriction of power to self and the al>olition of power over others. Government makes itself felt alike in country and in city, capital has its usurious grip on the farm as surely as on the workshop, .and the oppressions and exactions of neither government nor capital can be avoided by migration. The State is the enemy, and the best means of fighting it can only be found in communities already existing. If there were no other reason for opposing colonization, this in itself would be sufficient.

RESISTANCE TO GOVERNMENT In 1888 Mr. John Beverley Robinson (who just before his death in 1923 translated Proudhon's uGeneral Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century," published by Freedom Press, London) entered into a discussion with the editor of Liberty· on the question of non-resistance, which enabled Mr. Tucker to make clear the attitude of Anarchism· toward aggression and in its manner of treat ing aggressors: MR. ROBINSON says that the essence of government is com pulsion by violence. If it is, then of course Anarchists, al ways opposing government, must always oppose violence. But ~narchists do not so define government. To them the essence of government is invasion. From the standpoint of this definition, why should Anarchists, protesting against IN·DIVIDUA.L LIBERT··Y 37 invasion ~nd determined not to be invaded) not use violence :l~i~:t~f:*~dl~t~it;t~~o;i%~~~. shall seem·the~o~~ .Butitisnotthe most ,effective method, insists Mr. Rohin son; Uitdoes not accomplish its purpose." . Ah) .here weare on quite an()thergroun~. The' claim no longer is that it is necessarilyun ..Anarchisticto use violence, but that other influences.than •..•violence are '. more •potent· to .. overc.ome.inva siQflo< .E2tactly; •that is .t~egospel whi~h Liberty. has.always preac~ed. ," I have never said anything •to the ,contrary, and ¥~. ~obinson's criticism, so far as it lies in this direction, 'see111stom e 1na1a propos... His article <is prompted· by my ~fls'Wersto MrrBlodgett'in,Noo .115. . Mr.•.BIOdgett's q;ues· ti()ns ,were not as to what Anarchists would •find it best, to do, but as to' what their.A,narchistic doctrineJogically binds th~m todoandaY9id4oins... I confined my attention strictly toth,e tnafter in hand, 0tnitting. eJ{traneousmatters. · Mr.ltob~ in~on jSinot justifie~ ill. dr~'Wing inferences from my omissions, especially inferences that are antagonistic to my definite, assertions •~,t •. ~thertil11es.

Perhaps he will answer me, however) that there are certain Cit9\1mstances. under '\Vhich I thinkviolen~eadvisable. Stranted ;but~ according ,to his article, so does he. . These circutnstances, •however, he distinguishes from ,the social ••·state as>a state of .warfare. But so do I. Thefluestion cOmes -qpo£wnat you are. t?dowhen a tnall makes.[war upon 'you. Wardihimoff,saysMr. Itobinson, but do not attack him in ~\1rntopr,evellt a reEetitionofhis attack. As a general po1icy~ liagree;as arulew~thout. exceptions, 1 dissent. .,Suppose a 111antries to.knockme down.lwill.parry his blows for' awhile, m~anwhiletryin~t?dissuade.him. from his purpose. .But $1.lppose~e does not desist, and I have to take a train to r~ach the. bedside•of.m! ••.dying child.....• I straightway.knock 11i111 downiand. ,take ·the train. ..A.ndif ,afterwards he repeats ,his..atta<;¥.•.. again and again,.and •• thereb}7continually •takes.•. my titne<awayfrOm.the business of my life,l put him out of my way, in the most Clecentmannerpossible,but summarily-and forever. In, other words, it is foUy for people who desire to JiXe in society.to put up. with theinvasionsof the incorrigible.

"Whiphdo~s •. notalte~ .'. the Jact that-withthecorrigibleitis,.':not .only gOod policy,. but ·.inaccordance· with the. sentiments .. ()£ 38 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY highly-developed human beings, to .be as gentle and kind as possible. To describe such dealing with the incorrigible as the exer- . cise of Hour liberty to compel others" denotes an utter mis conception. It is simply the exercise of our liberty to keep others from compelling us. But who is to judge where invasion begins? asks Mr. Rob inson. Each for himself, and those to combine who agree, I answer. It will be perpetual w'ar, then? Not at all; a war of short duration, at the worst. I am well aware that there is a border-land between legitimate and invasive conduct o~er which there must be for a time more or less trouble. But it is ·an ever-decreasing margin. It has been narrowing ever since the idea of equal liberty :6.rst dawned upon the mind of man, and in proportion as this· idea becomes clearer and the new social conditions which it involves become real· will· it contract towards the geometrical conception of a line. And then the world will beat peace. Meanwhile, if the pickpocket continues his objeotionable business, it will not be because of any such reasoning as Mr. Robinson puts into his mouth.

He may so reason, but as a matter of fact he never does. Or, if he does, he is an exceptional pickpocket. The normal pickpocket has no idea of equal liberty. Whenever the idea dawns upon him, he will begin to feel a desire for its reali zation and to acquire a knowledge of what equal liberty is. Then he will see that it is exclusive of pocket-picking. And so with the people who hanged the Chicago martyrs. I have never blamed them in the. usual sense of the word blame. I charge them with committing gross outrage upon the principle of equal liberty, but not with knowing what they did. When they become Anarchists, they will realize what they did, and will do so no more. To this end my comrades and I are trying to enlighten them concerning the principle of equal liberty. But we shall fail if. we obscure the principle by denying or concealing the lengths to which, in case of need, it allows us to go lest people of tender sensibilities may infer· that we are in favor of always going to such lengths, regardless of circum stances.

While I should like .to see the line between liperty ana aggression drawn with scientific exactness, I cannot admit that INDIVIDUAL LI.BER TY 39 such rigor of definition is essential to' the realization of Anarchjsm. If,· in spite of. the lack of such .a, definition, the. history'ofliberty has been, asMr~Robinson truly says; U a\ .record of the continual widenIng of this limit," there is no reason why this widening. process should not go on until An... archy becomes a fact. It is perfectly thinkable that, after the last inch of· debatable ground' shall have heenadjudged to one side or the other, it may still be found impossible to scientific ally formulate the rule by which this decision and itsprede ... cessorswere arrived at. The chief influence in narrowing the strip. of· debatable .land is not so.much the increa.sing exactness of-the knowledge of what constitutes .aggression as the growing conception that aggression is an evil to be avoided and that liberty is the con dition of progress. The moment one abandons the idea that he was born to discover what is right and enforce it upon the' rest of the' world, .he hegins to· feel an· increasing disposition to let others alone and to refrain even from retaliation or resistance except/ in those. emergencies which immediately and impera tively .require· it. This remains true even if aggression be defined in. the extremely broad se~se of the infliction of pain; ''£orthe individual who traces. the connection between liberty and the.,general welfare, will be pained by few things so much as by the consciousness that his neighbors are curtailing their liberties out. of consideration for his. feelings, and such a J;Ilan will never say -,to·his neighbors, uThus far and no farther,"

until they commit acts of direct and indubitable interference andt~espass. The man who feels more pained at seeing his neighbor bathe naked than he would at· the knowledge that he 'refrained from doing so in-spite of ,his preference is invari ably the man who believes in aggression and, government as the hasis ofsociety and has not learned the lesson.that Uliherty is·.. the mother of order." I . This lesson, then, rather than an exact definition of aggres sion,· is the essential condition of the development of \Anar cbism~ Liberty has steadily taught this lesson, but has never professed an ability to define aggression,~ except in·a very -general way. We must trust to experience and_ theconclu siollstherefrom for the settlement of ~ all doubtful cases. is.for States and Churches, •I think ther~ is more founda tion·th~n. Mr. Robinson sees for the claim that they are.con40 INDIVIDU AL LIBERTY spiracies. Not that I fail to realize as fully as he that there are many good men in both whose intent is not at all to oppress or aggress. Doubtless there are many good and earnest priests whose sole 'aim is to teach religious truth as they see it and elevate human life, but has not Dr. McGlynn conclusively shown that the real power of control in the Church is always vested in an unscrupulous machine? That the State origi nated in aggression Herbert Spencer has proved. If it now pretends to exist for purposes of defence, it is because the advance of sociology has made such a pretence necessary to its preservation. Mistaking this pretense for reality, many good men enlist in the work of the State. But the fact re mains that the State exists mainly to do the will of capital and secure it all the privileges it demands, and I cannot see that the combinations of' capitalists who employ lobbyists to buy legislators deserve any milder title than ((conspirators," or that the term uconspiracy" inaccurately expresses the natureo£ their machine, the State. .

I think it accurate to say that Anarchism contemplates .anything and everything that does not contradict Anarchism. The writer whom Liberty criticised had virtually made it appear that police and jails do contradict Anarchism. Liberty ·simply denies this, and in that sense' contemplates police and jails. Of course it does not contemplate the compulsory sup port 'of such institutions by non-invasive persons. When I describe a man as an invader, I cast no reflec tion upon him; I simply state a fact. Nor do I assert for :a moment the moral inferiority of the invader's desire. I only ,declare the impossibility of simultaneously gratifying the in vader's desire to invade and my desire to be let alone. That these desires are morally equal I cheerfully admit, but they cannot be equally realized. Since one must be subordinated to the other, I naturally prefer the subordination of ~he in vader's, and am ready to cooperate with non-invasive persons to achieve that result. I am not wedded to the term ((justice,"

nor have I any objection to it. If Mr. Robinson doesn't like it, let us say u equalliberty" instead. Does he maintain that the use of force to secure equal libe'rty is precisely parallel to the use of force to destroy equal liberty? If so, I can only hope, for the sake of those who live in the houses which he INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 41 builds, that his appreciation 'of an angle is keener in architec ture than it is in sociology•. If the invader, instead of chaining me to a post, barri cades· the highway, do I any the less lose my liberty of loco motion?· Yet he has ceased to be violent. We obtain liberty, not.by the cessation of violence, but by the recognition, either voluntary or enforced, of equality of liberty. We are t9 establish the contrary by persistent inculcation of the. doctrine of equality of libertY', whereby·. :hn~lly the majority. will be made to see. in regard to existin,g for1!ls of invasion what they have already. been ma.deto see ·in regard to .. its obsolete forms,-nam~IY1' that. they are· not seeking equality of •liberty at all, but simply the·. subjection of .all others to themselves. Our sense of what constitutes invasion has. been acquired by experience. Additional experience is continually sharp~ning' that sen~e. Though we still draw the line by rule of thumb, weare 4rawingit more clearly every day. It woul9 be an advantage if we could frame a clear-cut generalization whereby to accelerate our progress. Butthough we have it nGt, we still progress.

Must I consent to be tra.mpled upon simply because no con tract has been .made? So the position· of the non-resistant is that, when nobody attacks him, he· won't resist. ttWe are all Socialists now," said some Englishman not long ago. Clearly we are all non-resist ants now, according to Mr.· Robinson. I know of no one who proposes to resist· when he isn't attacked, of· no one who pro poses to. enforce a •contract· which nobody desires· to violate. I tell Mr. Robinson, ·as I have told Mr.. Pentecost, that the be lievers in equal liberty ask pothingbetter than that an men should voluntarily act in accordance with the principle. But it is a melancholy fact .. that many men are not willing so to act. So far as our relations with such men are concerned, it is>not a matter of contract, but of force., Shall we consent to be ruled, or shall we refuse· to be ruled? If we consent, are 'we Anarchists? If we refuse, are we Archists? Thewhole question lies there, and Mr. Robinson fails to meet it.

The .chie£ difterencebetween passive resistance and non resistance is ,this: .passive resistance. is iregarded by its cham pions.. as· a·m.ere policy, while non-resistance is viewed by those 42 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y who favor it as a principle or· universal rule. Believers in passive resistance consider it as generally more effective than active resistance, but think that there are certain cases in which the opposite is true; believers in non-resistance con sider either that it is immoral to actively resist or else that it is always unwise to do so. Because violence, like every other policy, is advisable when it will accomplish the desired end and inadvisable when it will not. Anarchism .is philosophical, but i~ is not a system of philosophy. It is simply the fundamental principle in the science of political and social life. The believers in govern ment are not as easily to be satisfied as Mr. Robinson thinks; and it is well that they are not. The considerations upon which he relies may convince them that government does not exist to suppress robbery, but will not convince them that abolition of the State will obviate the necessity of dealing violently with the other and more ordinary kinds of govern ..

ment of which common robbery is one. For, even though they be led to admit that the disappearance of the robber State must eventually induce the disappearance of all other robbers, they will remember that effects, however certain, are not always immediate, and that, pending the consummation, there are often serious difficulties that must be confronted. If Mr. Robinson still maintains that doing violence to those who let us alone is precisely parallel to doing violence to those who assault us, lean only modestly hint once more that I have a better eye for an angle than he has. As long as nearly all people are agreed in their identification of the great majority of actions as harmonious with or counter to equal liberty, and as long as an increasing number of people are extending this agreement in identification over a still larger field of conduct, the definition of invasion as the infringement of equal liberty, far from being vain, will remain an important factor in political progress.

It seems that there are cases in which, according to Mr. Robinson, we· may resort to violence. It is now my turn to ask, Why? If he favors violence in one case, why not in all? I can see why, but not from his standpoint. For my part, I don't care a straw whether, when Mr. Robinson sees fit to use violence, he acts under protest or from principle. The main INDIVIDUAL LIBER TY 43 question is: Does he think it wise under some citcumst~nces to use violence, or is he so much ofa practical Archist that he would not save his child from otherwise inevitable murder by splitting open the murderer's head? LIBERTY AND ORGANIZATION Thirty-five yeats ago the Personal Rights Journal of London, at that time edited by J. H. Levy, was a valiant champion of what was then known as Individualism. This latter was practically Anarchism, but that fact. was not. realized by Levy,. Wordsworth Donisthorpeand other contributors to the columns of the Journal, which led to discussions between those gentlemen and the editor of·Liberty concerning Anarchism and organization, taxa tion, etc. Mr. Tucker's remarks are here set forth: Ni\.MES asid~, the thing that IndividuaHsmfavors is organi zation to· maintain· the widest liberty equally for all citizells.

Well, that is precisely. what Anarchism favors. Individualo ism does not want such organization any longer than is neces .sary. Neither does Anarchism. Mr. Levy's assumption thilt Anarchism ·doe,s not .want such organization. at all arises from histailure to recognize the Anarchistic definition of .govern. ment. Government' has been. tiefined repeatedly in these columns as the stibJ~ction of the non-invasive individual to a will not his own. The subjection of the invasive individual is not goveJ;.nment,but tesistan<;;eto and protection from gov ernme~t. By these definitions government is always an evil; but resistance to it is never an evil ora· poison. Call such resistance an antidote if you will, but remember that ,not·. aU antidotes. are poisonous. The worst that can be said of resistance or protectio~ is, not that it is an evil, but that ·it is a loss· of productive force in a necessary effort to .over come evil. It can be called an evil only in the sense that ne~dful and not· especially healthful labor can be' called .a curse.

GQvernmentis invasion, and the State is the embodiment 44 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY of invasion in an individual, or band of individuals, assum ing to act as representatives or masters of the entire people within a given area. The Anarchists are opposed to all gov... ernment, and especially to the St~te as the worst. governor and chief invader. From Liberty's standpoint, there are not three positions,. but two: one, that of the authoritarian Socialists, favoring governme1tt and the State; the other, that of the Individualists and Anarchists, against government and the State. I may add, in conclusion, that very probably the disposi tion of the Individualist to give greater prominence than does the Anarchist to the necessity of organization for· pro tection is due to the fact that he seems to see less clearly than the Anarchist that the necessity for defence against individ ual invaders is largely and perhaps, in the end, wholly due to the oppressions of the invasive State, and that when the State falls, criminals will begin to disappear.

«Whatever else Anarchism may mean, it means that State coercion of peaceable citizens, into cooperation in restraining the activity of Bill Sikes, is to be condemned and ought to be abolished. Anarchism implies the right of an individual to stand aside and see a man murdered or a woman raped. It implies the right of the would-be passive accomplice of ag gression to escape all coercion. It is true the Anarchist may voluntarily cooperate to check aggression; but also he may not. Qua Anarchist, he is within his right in withholding such cooperation, in leaving others to bear the burden of resistance to aggression, or in leaving the aggressor to triumph unchecked. Individualism, on the other hand, would not only restrain the active invader up to the point necessary to restore freedom to others, but would also coerce the man who would otherwise be a passive witness of, or conniver at"ag gression into cooperation against his more active colleague."

The foregoing paragraph occurs in any ably-written article· by Mr. J. H. Levy in the Personal Rights Journal. The writer's evident intention was to put Anarchism in an unfavorable light by stating its principles, or one of them, in a very offensive way. At the same time it was his intention also to be fair,-that is, not to distort the doctrine of Anarchism, and he has not distorted it. I reprint the paragraph in INDIVIDUAL LIBER.TY 4S editorial type for the purpose of giving it,as an Anarchist~ myentire approval, barring the stigma sought to be conveyed by the words' ((accomplice" and Uconniver/' If a man will but state the truth as I see it, he may state it as baldly as he pleases;•I will accept it still. The Anarchists are not afraid of. their principles. It is far more satisfactory to have one's, position, stated baldly and accurately by an' opponent who understands it than in a .genial:tmilk-and-water, and inaccurate fashion by an ignoramus.

It is agreed, then, that, in Anarchism's view, an individual has a right to stand aside and see a man .murdered. And pray, why, not? ·If it is justifiable to collar, a man who is minding his.own business and force him into a :fight, why may we not also, collar,.him for the" purpose' of forcing him to help us to coerce ,3 parent into educating his child, or to commit any other act of invasion that may seem to us for the general good? I· ca.u see,no ethical distinction here whatever. It is' true that Mr. Levy, ,in the succeeding paragraphs, justifies the collaring a-fthenon-cooperative individual on the ground of necessity. (I note ,here' that this is the same .ground on which' Citizen Most proposes to collar the non-eo-operator in his communistic enterprises· and make him work for love.instead of wages.) But some other, motive than necessity must have been. in Mr. Levy's 'mind, unconsciously, when he wrote the paragraph which I have quoted. Else why does he deny that the non cooperator is ((within his right"? 1 can understand the man .~hQin a crisis justifies no matter what form of compulsion on the ground of sheer necessity, but I cannot understand the mean who denies the right of the individual thus coerced to ,resist such .' compulsion and insist on pursuing his own inde pendent course. It is precisely this denial, however, that Mr.

Levy makes; otherwise his phrase ((within his right" is mea.ningless. , .But however this may be, let us look at the plea of neces sity. .Mr..Levy claims that the cdercion of the peaceful non cooperator is necessary. Necessary to wh~t? Necessary, answers Mr. Le~y, Hin ,order that freedom may be at the maximum." Supposing for the moment that this ,is true, another inquiry suggests itself: Is the absolute maximum of freedom an end to be attained at any cost? I regard liberty as the .chief essential to man's happiness~ and therefore as the 4'6 INDIVIDU AL LIBER TY most important thing in the world, and I certainly want as much of it as I can get. But I cannot see that it concerns roe much whether the aggregate amount of liberty enjoyed by all individuals added together is at its maximum or a little below it, if I, as one individual, am to have little or none of this ag gregate. If, however, I am to have as much liberty as others, and if others are to have as much as I, then, feeling secure in what we have, it will behoove us all undoubtedly to try to :attain the maximum of liberty compatible with this condition of equality. Which brings. us back to the familiar law of equalliberty,-the greatest amount of individual liberty com patible with the equality of liberty. But this maximum of liberty is a very different thing from that which is to be at tained, according to the hypothesis, only by violating equality of liberty. For, certainly, to coerce the peaceful non-co-oper ;ator is to violate equality of liberty. If my neighbor believes in cooperation and I. do not, and if he has liberty to choose to cooperate while I have no liberty to choose not to co-oper ate, then there is no equality of liberty between us.. Mr.

Levy's position is analogous to that of a man who should propose to despoil certain individuals of peacefully and hon estly acquired wealth on the ground that such spoliation is necessary in order that wealth may be at the'maximum. Of course Mr. Levy would answer to this that the hypothesis is absurd, and that the maximum could not be so attained; but .he clearly would have to admit, if pressed, that, even if it could,' the end is not important enough to justify such means. To be logical he must make the same admission regarding his owiJ. proposition. But after all, is the hypothesis any more absurd in the one case than in the other? I think· not. It seems to me just as impossible to attain the maximum of liberty by depriving people of their liberty as to attain the maximum of wealth by depriving people of their wealth. In fact, it seems to me that in both cases the means is· absolutely destructive of the end.

Mr. Levy wishes to restri~t the functions of .government; now, the compulsory cooperation that he advocates is the chief obstacle in the way of such restriction. To be sure, government restricted by the removal of this obstacle would no longer be government, as Mr. Levy is uquick-witted enough to see" (to return the compliment which he pays the IN DI V I D U ALL I B E R T Y 47 Anarchists). But what of that? It would still be a power for preventing those invasive acts which the people are practi cally agreed,in wanting to prevent. If. it should attempt to go heyond this, it would be !promptlycheckedby a diminution of the supplies.'· The power to cut off,the supplies is the most e1fective weapon against tyranny. To say, as Mr. Levy does,. thatCCtaxation •must be coextensive with government" is not the proper way to put it. It is government (or, rather, the State).,that must and will be coextensive with. taxation. When compulsory taxation is, abolished, there, -will·be no State, and the defensive institution-that will succeed it will be, steadily deterred from becoming an invasive institution through fear that the voluntary contributions will falloff. This constant motive tor a voluntary defensive institution to keep itself trimmed down to the popular demand is itself the best possible safeguard .against the bugbear of multitudinous rival, political agencies which seems to haunt Mr. Levy. He says that the voluntary taxationists are victims of an illusion. The' charg~ might' be made against himself with much' more reason.

My chief interest in Mr. Levy's article, .however, is excited by his valid criticism of those. Individualists who accept vol untary taxation, but stop short, or think they stop short, of , Anarchism. LIBERTY AND TAXATlON The power of taxation, ,being the most ,vital one to the State, "naturally was a prominent subject in Liberty's, discussions. Mr.F. W. Read, in London Jus, ,attacked ,•the posi.tion of Anar<;hism on this point and was thus 'answered by Mr. T1J.cker: 'THE idea that, the voluntary taxationistobjects to the St~te precisely ,because it does not rest ,on contract, and "wishes to subsl:itute contract for it,' is strictly correct, and I am glad to see· (for the first time, if my ,Demory serves.me) an opponent grasp it. •But Mr. Read obscures.his statement by his previous remark. that the proposal of voluntary ,taxation is uthe out48 I N D I V I D U ALL I BE R T Y J come of an idea ... that the State is, or ought to be, founded on contract." This would be true if the words which I have italicized should be omitted. It was the insertion of these words that furnished the writer a basis for his otherwise groundless analogy between the Anarchists and the followers of Rousseau. The latter hold that the State originated in a contract, and that the people of to-day, though they did not make it, are bound by it. The Anarchists, on the contrary, deny that any such contract was ever made; declare that, had one ever been made, it could not impose a shadow of obliga tion on those who had no hand in making it; and claim the right to contract for themselves as they please. The position that a man may make his own contracts, far from being analogous to that which makes him subject to contracts made by others, is its direct antithesis.

It is perfectly true that voluntary taxation would not necessarily ((prevent the existence of five or six (States' in, England," and that umembers of all these (States' might be living in the same house." But I see no reason for Mr. Read's exclamation point after this remark. What of it? There are many more than five or six Churches in England, and it fre quently happens that members of several of them live in the same house. There are many more than five or six insurance companies in England, and it is by no means uncommon for members of the same family to insure their lives and goods against accident or fire in different companies. Does any harm come of it? Why, then, should there not be a consider able number of defensive associations in England,· in which people, even members of the same family, might insure their lives and goods against murderers or thieves? Though Mr. Read has grasped one idea of the voluntary taxationists, I fear that he sees another much less clearly,-namely, the idea that defence is a service, like any other service; that it is labor both useful and desired, and therefore an economic commodity sub ject to the law of supply and demand; that in a free market this commodity would be furnished at the cost of production; that, competition prevailing, patronage would go to those who furnished the best article at the lowest price; that the produc tion and sale of this commodity are now monopolized by the State; that the State, like almost all monopolists, charges ex orbitant prices; that, like almost all monopolists, it supplies a INDIVIDUAL LIBER TY 49 worthless, or nearly worthless, article; that, just as the mo~ nopolist of a. food product often furnishes poison instead of nutriment, so the State takes advantage of its monopoly of defence .to furnish invasion instead of protection; that, just as the patrons of the one pay to be poisoned, so the patrons of the other pay to be enslaved; and, finally, that the State exceeds all its fellow-monopolists in the extent of .its vil lainy because it enjoys the unique privilege. of compelling all.people to buy its product whethe~ they want h or not.

If, then, five or six CCStates" were to hang out· their shingles, the people,] f~ncy, would be able to buy the very best kind of security ata reasonable price. And· what is more,-the better-their services, the less they would be needed; so that the multiplication of HStates" involves the abolition of the State. All these considerations, however, are disposed of, in Mr. Read's opinion, by his final assertion that CCtheStateis a social organism." He considers. this Htheexplanation of the whole matter." But for the life of me I can see in it nothing but another irrelevant remark. Again! ask: What of it? Suppose the State is an organism,-whatthen?· What is the inference? That the •State. is therefore permanent? But what is history but a record of the dissolution of organisms and the birth and growth of. others to be.dissolved in turn? ·Is the State exempt from this order? If so, why? What proves it? The State an organism ? Yes; •so is a tiger. But unless I meet him. when I haven't my gun, his organism will speedily disorganize. The State is a tiger seeking to devour the people, and they must either, kill or cripple it. Their own safety. depends upon it.

But Mr. Read says it can't. be done. ttBy no possibility can the power of the •State be'restrained .." This must ,be very dis appointing' toMr.Doni~thorpe and Jus, who are ",working to restrain it. If Mr. Read is right, their occupation is gone. Is he right? Unless he can demonstrate it, the voluntary taxa tionists and the Anarchists will continue their work, cheered by the belief that thecompulsQry and invasive State is doomed to die. In answer to Mr. Read's statement (which, if, with all its implications, it were_true, would be a valid and final answer. to the .Anarchists ) that ttdissolving an organism is' something differen! from dissolving a collection of atoms with no organic structure," I cannot do .better than quote the following. pas50 INDIVIDUAL LIBER TY sage from an article by J. Wm. Lloyd in No. 107 of Liberty: CClt appears to me that this universe is but a vast aggre gate of individuals; of individuals simple and primary, and of individuals complex, secondary, tertiary, etc., formed by the aggregation of primary individuals or of individuals of a lesser degree of complexity. Some of these individuals of a high degree of complexity are true individuals, concrete, so united that the lesser organisms included cannot exist, apart from the main organism; while others are imperfect, discrete, the included organisms existing fairly well, quite as we~l, or better, apart than united. In the former class are included many of the higher forms of vegetable and animal life; includ ing man, and in the latter are included many lower forms of vegetable and animal life (quack-grass, tape-worms, etc.) , and most society organisms, governments, nations, churches, armies, etc."

Taking this indisputable view of the matter, it becomes clear that Mr. Read's statement about ccdissolving an organ ism" is untrue while the word organism remains unqualified by some adjective equivalent to Mr. Lloyd's concrete. The question, then, is whether the State is a concrete organism. The Anarchists claim that it is not. If Mr. Read thinks that it is, the onus probandi is upon him. I judge that his error arises from a confusion of the State with society. That society is a concrete organism the Anarchists do not deny; on the contrary, they insist upon it. Consequently they have no in tention or desire to abolish it. They know that its life is in separable from the lives of individuals; that it is impossible to destroy one without destroying the other. But~ though society cannot be destroyed, it can be greatly hampered and impeded in its operations, much to the disadvantage of the individuals composing it, and it meets its chief impediment in the State.

The State, unlike society, is a discrete organism. If it should be destroyed to-morrow, individuals. would still continue to exist. Production, exchange, and association would go on as before, but much more freely, and all those social functions upon which the individual is dependent would operate. in his behalf more usefully than ever. The individual is not re lated to the State as the tiger's paw is related to the tiger. Kill the tiger, and the tiger's paw no longer performs its office; kill the State, and the individual still lives and satisfies his INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 51 wants. As for ,society, the Anarchists would not kill it if they could,. and could not if they would. Mr. Read finds it astounding that] should u put the State ona level with churches and insurance companies." I find his astonishment amusing. Believersin compulsory religious sys temswere "astounded when' it was, first proposed to put •the church' on a level with other associations. Now the only as stonishment is-at least in the United'States-that the church 'is' allowed to st~y ~tany other level. Buttliepolitical super stition ,.has replaced the religious superstition, and Mr. Read is. under its sway.

,Ido not think ~ttthat five or six tStates' could exist side by side with" quite (tthe same convenience' as 'an equal·number. of churches." In 'the relations with which States have to do there is more chance for friction than' in the simply religious sphere. . But, on the other· hand, the friction' resulting from a multiplicity of States would be but a nlQle-hillcompared with the mountain ,0£ oppression and injustice which is gradually heaped up bya single compulsory State. It would not be necessary for a police o:ffi.cerof a voluntary <tState" to know to what ttState" a given individual, belonged, or whether he belonged to any. Voluntary ttStates" could, and probably )Vould,authorize their executives' to proceed against invasion, *0 matter who the invader or invaded might be. Mr.Read ",ill probably object that the' ttSt;ate" to' which the invader, ~el(jnged might regard his arrest as itself an invasion, and proceed against the ttState", which ~rr~sted him. Anticipa tion,'of such conflicts would. probably result exactly in those treaties between UStates" which Mr., Read looks upon as so #esirable,'and even in the establishment of federal tribunals, ~scourts •of .last resort, by •the cooperation of the various ~CStates/' on the"same voluntary principle in accordance with which the ttStates" themselves wereotganized.

, ,Voluntary taxation, far from impairing. the UState's~?credit, ~ould strengthen it. In the first place, the,.simplificationo£ jts functions would greatly reduce, and perhaps entirely ~bolish, its need to borrow, and the power to·borrow is gener ~Uy inversely proportional to the steadiness of the need. It is •usually. the inveterate borrower who lacks credit. In, the fec:ond,place, the power of the State to repudiate, and' still '!continue its business, is ,dependent upon its 'power of com52 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY pulsory taxation. It knows that, when it can no longer borrow, it can at least tax its citizens up to the limit of revolution. In the third place, the State is trusted, not be cause it is over and above individuals, but because the lender presumes that it desires to maintain its credit and will there fore pay its debts. This desire for credit will be stronger in a ((State" supported by voluntary taxation than in the State.

which enforces taxation. All the objections brought forward by Mr. Read (except the organism argument) are mere difficulties of administra- , tive detail, to be overcome by ingenuity, patience, discretion, and expedients. They are not logical difficulties, not difficulties of principle. They seem ((enormous" to him; but so seemed the difficulties of freedom of thought two centuries ago. What does he think of the difficulties of the existing regime? Ap parently he is as blind to them as is the Roman Catholic to the difficulties of a State religion. All these ((enormous" dif ficulties which arise in the fancy of the objectors to the volun tary principle will gradually vanish under the -influence of the economic changes and well-distributed prosperity which -will follow the adoption of that principle. This is what Proudhon calls ((the dissolution of government in the econon1ic organ ism." It is too vast a subject for consideration here, but, if Mr. Read wishes to understand the Anarchistic theory of the process, let him study that most wonderful of all the won derful books of Proudhon, the uIdee Generale de la Revolution au Dix-Neuvieme Siecle."

It is true that ((history shows a continuous weakening of the State in some _directions, and a continuous strengthening in other directions." At least such is the tendency, broadly speaking, though this continuity is sometimes 1:?roken by pe riods of reaction. This tendency is simply the progress of evolution towards Anarchy. The State invades less and less, and protects more and more. It is exactly in the line of this process, and at the end of it, that the Anarchists demand the abandonment of the last citadel of invasion by the .. substitu tion of voluntary for compulsory taxation. When this step is taken, the ((State" will achieve its maximum strength as a protector against aggression, and will maintain it as long as its services are needed in that capacity. If Mr. Read, in saying that the power of the State cannot INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 53 be restrained, •simply meant that .it cannot ,be legally re strained, his remark had no fitness as an answer to Anarchists and voluntary taxationists., , They do·not, propose to legally re strain it. They propose to create a public sentiment that will make itimpossible for the State to collrct taxes by force or in. any other way invade the individual. Regarding the State as.an instrument of aggression, they do not expect to convince it that aggression,is against its interests, but they doe:x:pect to c()nvinceindividu~ls "th~t it is ~g~inst their, interests to be.in..

vaded. If ,by this ,means they succeed in stripping the State of its invasive powers, they will be satisfied, and it is im material to them whether the means,is described by the word Urestraine' or by some other word. In fact,! have ,striven in this discussion ,to accommodate myself to Mr., Read's phraseology., Fox myself I do not, think it, proper. to' call' vol untary associations States,'. but, enclosing the word in quota tionmarks,I have so used it because Mr. Read set the example. Mr. ,Frederic A. C. Perrine, of Newark, N. J., asked Mr.. Tucker. for his reason for' refusing to pay poll tax, and incidentally criticised the latter's position on that matter, which brought forth this reply: MR. PERRINE'S.criticism "is an entirely pertinent, one, and o£ the sort that I like,to answer, Ithough in this instance.c~rcum stances have delayed the '.appearance'of his letter. The gist of his position-in £ac;t, the. whole of' his argumen~-is based on the assumption .that the State is precisely the thing which the Anarchists say it isnot,~namely, a voluntary association of contracting individuals., ,Were it. really ·such, I should have no quarrel with it, and.I, should admit the truth of Mr. Per tine's remarks. For certainly such voluntary association would he entitled to enforce whatever regulations the contracting parties might agree. upon within the limits of whatever' ter ritory, or divisions'of territory, had been brought into the association by these parties as individual occupiers thereof, all~, no non-contracting party. would have a right to enter ()rtemain in this domain except, upon such,. terms as the ••,as spciation might, impose.. ,But if, somewhere between, these divisionso£, territory, had lived,. prior to the£ormation o£the 54 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY aSSocIatIon, some individual on his homestead, who for any reason, wise or foolish, had declined to join in forming the association, the contracting parties .would have had no right to evict him, compel him to join, make him pay for any in cidental benefits that he might derive from proximity to their association, or restrict him in the exercise of any previously enjoyed right to prevent him from reaping these benefits.

Now, voluntary association necessarily involving the right of secession, any seceding member would naturally fall back into the position and upon the rights of the individual above de scribed, who refused to join at all. So much, then, for the attitude of the individual toward any voluntary association surrounding him, his support thereof evidently depending upon his approval or disapproval of its objects, his view of its efficiency in attaining them, and his estimate of the advantages and disadvantages involved in joining, seceding, or abstaining. But no individual to-day finds himself under any such cir cumstances. The States in the midst of which he lives cover all the ground there is, affording him no escape, and are not voluntary associations, but gigantic usurpations. There is not one of them which did not result from the agreement of a larger or smaller number of individuals, inspired sometimes no doubt by kindly, but oftener by malevolent, designs, to declare all the territory and· persons within certain boundaries a nation which everyone of these persons must support, and to whose will, expressed through its sovereign legislators and administrators no matter how chosen, everyone of them must submit. Such an institution is sheer tyranny, and has no rights which any individual is bound to respect; on the con trary, every individual who understands his rights and values his liberties will do his best to overthrow it. I think it must now be plain to Mr. Perrine why I do not feel bound either to pay taxes or to emigrate. Whether I will pay them or not is another question,-one of expediency. My object in refus il}g has been, as Mr. Perrine suggests, propagandism, and in the receipt of Mr. Perrine's letter I find evidence of the adap tation of this policy to that end. Propagandism is the only motive that I can urge for isolated individual resistance to tax ation. But out of propagandism by this and many other methods I ·expect there ultimately will develop the organiza tion of a determined body of men and women who will effecINDIYIDUAL LIBERTY'S,.

tOvely,thopgh p~ssively, resist, taxation, not simply forpropa andism,·.but to. directly· cripple their.oppressors. This. is.the e~ent of the only ccviolentsubstitution afend for beginning U hich. I can plead. guilty .. ofadyoca ting, and, if the.·end. can e ttbetter and more easily obtained" in any other way, .I S ould·like .to have it pointed out. The cCgrand.raceexpe ence" .which Mr. Perrine thinks I~neglectis a very imposing/ hrase,.on hearing which one is moved to lie down in prostrate s .bm.ission; .but . whoever hrst .chances to take a closer look iUsee that it is. but one of those .spooks of which Tak Tak James L. Walker, author· of cCThePhilosophy of Egoism"] ells us. Nearly aU the evils with which. mankind was ever fflicted were products of this ccgrand race experience," and I rrino~ aware that any were ever abolished by showing it any nneccessary reverence. We. will bow to.it when we must; e will ucompromisewith existing circumstances" when,we ave to; but at. all other times we win' follow our· rea-son and , he•plumb-line.

When. I .said that voluntary association necessarily involves . he right ·of secession,.I. did not· deny the .right .ofany inai ... iduals to go through the form of constituting themselves n association in which each member waives.the right. of seces ion. .My.'assertion was simply mea.ntto carry the idea that uch a constitution, if any' should be .. so idle as to adopt· it, ould be: a mere form, .which every decent man who was a arty to it would hasten to violate and tread under foot.as oon as he appreciated the enormity of his folly. Contract is, very service~hle and most. important tool,' .but its usefulnes,s as its limits ; no man can employ it for the abdication of his anhood. To indefinitely, waive one's right of secession.is o make one's self· a slave. Now, no man can make himself o much .a slave as to forfeit the right to issue his own eman ipation proclamation. Individuality and its, right of asser ion are Indestructible except by death. Hence any signer fsuch a. constitution as' that· supposed who should after ..

ards' become .an Anarchist would be fully justified' in. the se of any means that would protect him from attempts to oerce .him in the name of that con~titution. .But even if this erenotso;.ifmenwere really under obligation,to keep ,im ossible'.contr~cts,---.there would· still be .no inference'to be S6 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY. drawn therefrom regarding the relations of the United States to its so-called citizens. To assert that the United States constitution is similar to that of the hypothesis is an extremely wild remark. Mr. Perrine can readily find this out by read ing Lysander Spooner's ((Letter to Grover Cleveland." That masterly document will tell him what the United States con stitution is and just how binding it is on anybody. But if the United States constitution were a voluntary contract of the nature described above, it would still remain for Mr. Per rine to tell us why those who failed to repudiate it are bound, by such failure, to comply with it, or why the assent of those who entered into it is binding upon people who were then unborn, or what right the contracting parties, if there were any, had to claim jurisdiction and sovereign power over that vast section of the planet which has since been known as' the United States of America and over all the persons contained .therein, instead of over themselves simply and such lands as they personally occupied -and used. These are points which he utterly ignores. His reasoning consists of independent propositions between which there are no logical links. Now, as to the ((grand race experience." It is perfectly true that, if we have anything grand, it is this, but it is no less true that, if we have anything base, it is this. It is all we have, and, being all, includes all, both grand and base. I do not deny man's grandeur, neither do I deny his degradation; con sequently I neither accept nor reject all that he has been and done. I try to use my reason for the purpose of discrimina tion, instead of blindly obeying any divinity, even that Qf man. We should not worship this race experience by imitation and repetition, but should strive to profit by its mistakes and avoid them in future. Far from believing in any Edenic state, I yield to no man in my strict· adherence to the theory of evolution, but evolution is ((leading us up to Anarchy"

simply because it has already led us in nearly every other di rection and made a failure of it. Evolution like nature, of which it is the instrument or. process, is extremely wasteful and short-sighted. Let us not imitate its wastefulness or even tolerate it if we can help it; let us rather use our brains for the guidance of evolution in the path of economy. Evolu tion left to itself will sooner or later eliminate~ every other social form and leave us Anarchy. But evolution guided will INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 57 try to discover Ithe common element in its past failures, sum marily. reject everything having this element, and straight way accept Anarchy, which has it not. Because we are the products of evolution we are not therefore to be its puppets. On the contrary, as our intelligence grows, we are to be more and mor,e its masters. It is .just becaus~ we let it master us, just because we strive to act with it rather than across its path, just because we dilly-dally and shilly..shally and fritter away our time, for instan~e, oyer. secret ballq ts, open· ballots~ and the like, instead of treating the whole matter of the suf frage from the standpoint of principle, that we do indeed ((pave the way," much to our. sorrow, (Cfor those great revo lutions" and tcgreat'epochs" when extremists suddenly 'get the upper hand. Great epochs, indeed! Great disaste~s rather, which it behooves us vigilantly to avoid. But how? By being extremists now. .If there were more extremists in evolution ary periods, there would be. no revolutionary periods. There is no lesson more important for mankind to learn than that.

Until it is learned, Mr. Perrine will talk in vain about the divinity of man, for every day will' make .it more patent that' his god is but a jumping-jack. I have never said that it is Headi man's duty to break all contracts as soon as he.hasbecome convinced that they w~re made foolishly." What I said was that, if a .man should sign a contract to part with his liberty. forever, he would violate it as soon as he saw the enormity of his folly. Because ,1 'believe that some promises are better' broken than kept,. it does not follow that I think it wise alw~ys to break a foolish promise. On the contrary, I deem the keeping of promises such an· importantimatter that only in the .,extremest cases would I approve~heir. violation. It is of such vital conse quence that associ~tesshould be able t~ rely upon each other that it is better never to do anything to .weaken this confidence except when it can be maintained only ,at the expense of some consideration of even greater importance. I mean by evo lution just what' Darwin means by it,-namely, theproces~ of selection by which, out. of all the variations tha,t occur £romany cause whatever,'only. those'are preserved which •• are best adapted to the environment. Inasmuch as the variations that perish vastly outnumber those that survive~ this process is•.extremely . wasteful, .but. human intelligence. can greatly INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY lessen the waste. I am perfectly willing to admit its optim ism if by'optimism is meant the doctrine that everything is for the best under the circumstances. Optimism so defined is noth ing more than the doctrine of necessity. As to the word ((deg_ radation," evidently Mr. Perrine is unaware of all its mean ings. By its derivation it implies descent from something higher, but it is also used by the best English writers to ex press a low condition regardless of what preceded'it. It was in the latter sense that I used it.

ANARCHISM AND CRIME Mr.B. W. Ball wrote an article in the Index criticizing Anarchism without having familiarized himself with the groundwork of that philosophy. Hence the following reply: MR. BALL'S central argument against us, stated briefly, is this: Where crime exists, force must exist to repress it. Who denies it? Certainly not Liberty; certainly not the Anarchists. Anarchism is not a revival of non-resistance, although there may be non-resistants in its ranks. The direction of Mr. Ball's attack implies that we would let robbery, rape, and murder make havoc in the community without lifting a finger to stay their brutal, bloody work. On the contrary, we are the stern est enemies of invasion of person-and property, and, although chiefly busy in destroying the causes thereof, have no scruples against such heroic treatment of its immediate manifestations as circumstances and wisdom may dictate. It is true that we look forward to the ultimate disappearance of the necessity of force even for the purpose of repressing crime, but this, though involved in it as a necessary result, is by no means a necessary condition of the abolition of the State.

In opposing the State, therefore, we do not deny Mr. Ball's proposition, but distinctly affirm and emphasize it. We make war upon the State as the chief invader of person and prop erty, as the cause of substantially all the crime and misery that exist, as itself the most gigantic criminal extant. It manINDIVIDUAL LIBERTYj S,2 ufactures criminals mucrh.,faster than it punishes them. It exists to create ,and sus~ain, the· privileges·which produce eco noxpic•and social chaos.·. It is the sole support. of the. monop olies which concentrate, wealth and learning in the hands of a .·few.•.and disperse poverty and ignorance. among the masses, to· the ,Increase.of which inequality the· increase of. crime .. is~ directly proportional. •It .protects a minority in .plundering the majority by methods too subtle, to be understood by the vietims~ ~nd then punis~~suchun.rulymembers of the major.. ity as· attempt to plunder others by methods too simple and straightforward' to be recognized by the State a~ legitimate, crowl1ing its outrages by deluding scholars and philosophers of Mr. Ball's stamp into. pleading, as an, excuse for its infa mous existence, the necessity of repressing the crime which it steadilycrea tes.

Mr. •Ball,-to ,his honor be itsaid,-during anti-slavery days, was a steadfast .,. abolitionist.· He earnestly· desired the abolition, of slavery. Doubtless he remembers how· often he was met with the argument that slavery was necessary to keep the unlettered blacks out of mischief, and that it would be unsafe ·to give. freedom to such. a mass of ignorance. ,. Mr. Ball in those days sawthrQughthe sophistry of such. reason ing, and knew that those, who urged it did so to give .some color of moral justification to ,their •conduct in living inJux ury on the enforced toU of slaves.. He probably was wont to answer .• them something after ,this .fashion: (CIt. is, the institu tion of slavery that •keeps the 'blacks in. ignorance, and to justify slavery. on the ground of their ignorance is to reason in ,a .circle·.and beg the very question at issue." To-day Mr. Ball-again to hishonqr be it said-is a relig ious abolitionist. He earnestly desires the abolition" or at le,astthe disappearance,of the Church. How frequently he must meet or hear of priests who, while willing to privately admit that the doctrines.of the Church are a bundle of de lusions, argue that the Church is necessary to keep the super stition-ridden masses in order, and that their release from the mental subjection in which it holds them would be equivalent to' theirptecipitation into unbridled dissipation, libertinis1ll' and ·ultima.te ruin. Mr. Ball sees clearly through the. fallacy of all such logic, and knows that those ,who use it do so to gain •• amo~al footing .onwhich, to stand while ,collecting their 6,0 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY :fees from the poor fools who know no better than to pay ~hem. We can fancy him replying with pardonable indigna tion: (tCunning knaves, you know very well that it is your Church that saturates the people with superstition, and that to justify its existence on the ground of their superstition is to put the cart before the horse and assume the very point in dispute."

Now, we Anarchists are political abolitionists. We earnestly (Iesire the abolition of the State. Our position on this ques tion is parallel in most respects to those of the Church aboli tionists and the slavery abolitionists. But in this case Mr. Ball-to his disgrace be it said-takes the side of the tyrants against the abolitionists, and raises the cry so frequently raised against him: The State is necessary to keep thieves and mur... derers in subjection, and, were it not for the State, we should all be garroted in the streets and have our throats cut in our beds. As Mr. Ball saw through the sophistry of his opponents, so we see through his, precisely similar to theirs, though we know that n,ot he, but the capitalists use it to blind the people to the. real object of the institution by which they are able to extort from labor the bulk of its products. We answer him as he did them, and in no very.patient mood: Can you not see that it is the State that creates the conditions which give birth to thieves and murderers, and that to justify its existence on ~he ground of the prevalence of theft and murder is a logical process every whit as absurd as those used to defeat your efforts to abolish slavery and the Church?

Once for all, then, we are not opposed to the punishment of thieves and murderers; we are opposed to their manufacture. Right here Mr. Ball must attack us, or not at all. The makers of party platforms, the writers of newspaper editorials, the pounders of pulpit-cushions, and the orators of the stump, who are just now blertding their voices in frantic chorus to proclaim the foreign origin of evil and to advocate therefore the exclusion of the foreign element from American soil, should study the £gures compiled by the Rev. Frederick Howard Wines from the tenth census reports and presented by him to the congress of the National Prison Association lately held in Boston. Such of these shriekers as are pro vided with thinkers may £nd in these statistics food for INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY '61 thought •.From them it appears that, though the ratioo£ crime a.mong our. foreign':'bornpopulationisstill' very much higher than the ratio among our native population, the fQrmer ratio, which in 1850' was more than five times as high as. the latter, in 1880 was less. than .twic~as high. And it further appears that, if crimes' against person and. property are alone cQnsidered,the two ratios stand almost exactly on a level,a.ttd that the ratio of foreign-born criminals .tends to exceed that of n~tive 'criminals in proportion as the catalogueof <Ccrimes"

is extended to cover so-called offences against public morals~ public policy, and society. In other words, the percentage-of natives who steal, .damage, burn, assault, kidnap, rape, and kill is about as large as the. percentage. of •foreigners of. simi larly invasive tendencies, and the percentage of foreign-born law-breakers exceeds that of .native law-breakers only because the foreign-born. are less disposed than the natives to obey those •laws which say that people shall· not drink this or. eat that or ..smoke the other; that they shall not love except under prescribed forms and conditions; that they shall not dispose pr expose their persons except' as their rulers provide; ,that they shall not work or play on Sunday or blasphem~the name of the Lord; that theyshall·not gamble or swear; that they shall not sell certain articles at all, or buy certain others without paying a tax for the privilege; and that they shall not mail, own, or read any obscene literature. except the Bible.

That is. to say, again, people who happen to have been born. ilJ. Eurqpeare no more determined to invade their .fellowm.en than .·are people •• who happen to have been born in America~ but that the latter are much more willing to be invaded and trampled upon than any other people on earth. . .Which speaks very well, in Liberty's opinion, for the foreigners, and makes it.·importantfor our own libertyand welfareto do everything possible to encourage immigration. But, say the shriekers, these foreigners are' Anarchists and Socialists. Well, there's some truth in that; as a general rule, .the better people are, the. more Anarchists. and Socialists will .• he .found among. them. This, too, is a fact which the tenth census proves. . ~ Now-, in what cla'ssof foreigners in this country do the ~narchists. and Socialists figure most .largely? Certainly.not among: the Chinese or. the Irish or the Cubans or the Span6.z INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY iards or the Italians or the Australians or the Scotch or the French or the English or the Canadians. But these are the only foreigners except the Russians who make a poorer show ing in point of criminality than the native Americans. To find in .this country any considerable number of Anarchists and Socialists of foreign birth, we must go to the Russians, the Germans, the Poles, the Hungarians, and the Bohemians. The statistics show, however, that the Russians are almost as orderly as Americans, the Germans exactly as orderly, the Poles more orderly, and the Hungarians and Bohemians more than twice as orderly.

Moral: If the defenders of privilege desire to exclude from this country the opponents of privilege,· they should see to it that Congress omits the taking of the eleventh census. For the eleventh census, if taken, will undoubtedly emphasize these two lessons of the tenth: first, that foreign immigration does not increase dishonesty and violence among us, but does in crease the love of liberty; second, that the population of the world is gradually dividing into two classes,-Anarchists and criminals. LIBERTY AND POLITICS CONNECTED with the Massachusetts branch of the National Woman Suffrage Association is a body of women calling itself the Boston Political· Class, the object of which is the prepara tion of its members for the use of the ballot. On May 30, 1889, this class was addressed in public by Dr. Wm. T. Harris, the Concord philosopher, on the subject of State Socialism, Anarchism, and free competition. Let me say, parenthetically, to these ladies that, if they really wish to learn how to use the ballot, they would do well to apply for instruction, not to Dr. Harris, but to ex-Supervisor Bill Simmons, or Johnny O'Brien of New York, or Senator Matthew Quay, or some leading Tammany brave, or any of the ((bosses" who rule city, State, and Nation; for, the great object of the ballot being to test truth by counting noses and to prove your op ponents wrong by showing them to be less numerous than your friends, and these men having practically demonstrated that they are masters of the art of rolling up majorities at I INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY the polls, they can .teach themembers,of·the •Boston Political Class a trick or two. by which they cangainnumericcil su premacy, while Dr. Harris, in the most favorable view of the case, can only elevate their intelligence and thereby :fix them more hopelessly in a minority that must be vanquished ina contest where ballots instead of brains decide the victory.

But let that pass. <1 am not; concerned now with these e:x cellent' ladies, but with Dr. Harris's excellent address; Jor .it wa.s excellent, ,notwithstandi 118 .the fact tha.t he intended .it partly as a blow at Anarchism. Instead of being such a blow, the 'discourse was' really an affirmation of Anarchism almost from beginning to end, at least in so far as it dealt withprin ciples, '. and •departed from, Anarchism on\y in two or three mistaken attempts to illustrate the principles laid down and to ,identify existing society with them as expressive of them. Afte~ positing the proposition that the object of society is the pr9duction, of 'self-conscious intelligence in its •highest form, or, ,in, other words, the most 'perfect individuality, the lecturer spent the. first half of his time in considering State So cialism from, this standpoint. ,He had no difficulty in showing that the absorption of ,enterprise' by the State is indeed, a ulooking backward,"-a very long look backward ,at that communism which 'was the •only form ·of society known to primitive '.' man; ,at that, communism which purchases mate rial equality at the expense of the destruction of liberty; at that communism out of which evolution, with its tendency toward individuality, ha,s·been gradually lifting mankind for thousands of ,years; at that communism which, by subject ing the individual rights of life and property to industrial tyranny, theJ:eby renders necess.arya central political tyranny to at least partially secure the. right. to •life and. make possible the continuance of. some semblance, of social. existence. The lecturer took the position that civil society is dependent upon freedom ,in production, distribution, and, consumption, and that such freedom is utterly incompatible with State Socialism, which in its ultimate implies the absolute control of all these functions by arbitrary power as a substitute for economic law. Therefore Dr. Harris, settin~ great value upon civil society, has no us.efor State Socialism.N either have the Atlarchists.'rhus far, then, the Anarchists and the teacher o£\theBoston Political ,class walk hand in hand.

64 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y Dr. Harris, however, labors under a delusion that just at this point he parts c<;>mpany.with us. As we follow his argument further, we.shall see if this be true. The philosophy of society, he continued in substance, is coextensive with a ground covered by four institutions ,-namely, the family, civil society, the State, and the Church. Proceeding then to define the specific purposes of these institutions, he declared that the obje~t of the family is to assure the reproduction of individuals and prepare them, by guidance through childhood, to become reasonable beings; that the object of civil society is to enable each individual to reap advantage from the powers of all other individuals through division of labor, free ex change, and other economic means; that the object of the State is to protect each individual against aggression and se cure him in his freedom as long as he observes the equal free dom of others; and that the object of the Church (using the term in its broadest sense, and not as exclusively applicable to the various religious bodies) is to encourage the investiga tion and perfection of science, literature, the fine arts, and all those higher humanities that make life worth living and tend to the elevation and completion of self-conscious intelligence or individuality. Each of these objects, in the view of the lec turer, is necessary to the existence of any society worthy of the name, and the omission of anyone of them disastrous. The State Socialists, he asserted truthfully, would ruin the whole structure by omitting civil society, whereas the Anarchists, he asserted erroneously, would equally ruin it by omitting the State. Right here lies Dr. Harris's error, and'it is the most vulgar of all errors in criticism,-that of treating the ideas of others from the standpoint, not of their definitions, but of your own. Dr. Harris hears that the Anarchists wish to abolish the State, and straightway he jumps to the conclusion that they wish to abolish what he defines as the State. And this, too, in spite of the fact that, to my knowledge, he lis tened not long ago to the reading of a paper by an Anarchist from which it was clearly to be gathered that the Anarchists have no quarrel with any institution that contents itself with enforcing the law of equal freedom, and that they oppose the State only after first defining it as an institution that claims authority over the non-aggressive individual and enforces that authority by physical force or by means that. are effective INDIVIDUAL LIBER T,Y 6J only because they can and will be backed by physical force if necessary. Far from omitting the State as Dr. Harris defines it, the Anarchists expressly favor such an institution, by what· .ever name it may be called, as long as its raison d'etre con tinues; and certainly Dr. Harris would not demand its preset, vadon after it had become superfluous. , ' In principle, then, are not, the Anarchists and Dr.. Harris lit agreement at every essential point? It certainly seems so.

'I do not know an Anarchist that would not accept eveq division of his social map. Defining the object of the family as he defines it, the Anarchists believe in the family; they only insist that, free competition, and experiment shall alway~ be allowed ,in order that it rrlay be determined what form of· family best secures this object .. Defining the object of civil society ashe defines it, the An archistsbelieve in civil society; only they insist that the free domo£civil society shall be complete instead, of partial. Defining' theobjeGt of the State as he defines it, the An archists believe ,in the State; only they insist that the greater part, if not all,o£ the necessity for its existence is the result of ..an artificiallhnitation of the freedom of civil "'society,.and that the completion of industrial freedom may one day so harmonize individuals that it will no longer be necessary' to .provide a guarantee of political freedom. .

Denning the object. of the Church as he dennes it, the An archists most certainly believe in the Church; only they insist that, all its work shall be /purely voluntary, and that, its dis coveries and achievements, p.owever beneficial, shall not be imposed upon the individual by authority. But there is a point, unhappily, where. the Anarchists and Dr. Harris do part company, and that point is reached when he declares or -assumes or leaves it to be inferred that the pres ent form of the family is the form that best secures the objects of the family, and that no attempt at allY other form is to he tolerated, although evidence of the horrors engendered by the prevailing family life is being daily spread before our eyes in an ever-increasing volume; that th~ present form of civil so ciety is' the embodiment of complete ' economic,.freedom, al thoughit is ',' undeniable that the, most important freedoms, those without which all other freedoms are of little or no avail, 66 I N D I VI D U ALL I B E R T Y -the freedom of banking and the freedom to take possession of unoccupied land,-exist nowhere in the civilized world; that the existing State does nothing but enforce the law of equal freedom, although it is unquestionably based upon a compulsory tax that is itself a denial of equal freedom, and is daily adding to ponderous volumes of statutes the bulk of which are either sumptuary and meddlesome in character or devised in the interest of privilege and monopoly; and that the existing Church carries on its work in accordance with the principle of free competition, in spite of the indubitable fact that, in its various fields of religion, science, literature, and the arts, it is endowed with innumerable immunities, favors~ prerogatives, and licenses, with the extent and stringency of which it is still unsatisfied.

All these assumptions clearly show that Dr. Harris is a man of theory, and not of practice. He knows nothing but disem bodied principles. Consequently, w;hen the State Socialist proposes to embody a principle antagonistic to his, he recog nizes it as such and demolishes it by well-directed arguments. But this same antagonistic principle, so far as it is already embodi~d, is unrecognizable by him. As soon as it becomes in carnate~ he mistakes it for his own. No matter what shape it has taken, be it a banking monopoly, or a land monopQly,or a national post-office monopoly, or a common school system, or a compulsory tax, or a setting-up of non-aggressive individ uals to be shot at by an enemy, he hastens to offer it one hand, while he waves the flag of free competition with the other. In consequence of its fleshly wrappings, he is constitu tionally incapable of combating the status quo. For this reason he is not an altogether competent teacher, and is liable to confuse the minds of the ambitious ladies belonging to the Boston Political Class.

LIBERTY AND PROHIBITION Mr. Lucian V. Pinney, a protectionist and a green backer-but an anti-prohibitionist-made the following statement in his paper, the Winsted (Conn.) Press: INDIVIDU AL LIBERTY '67 C~There is, nothing' any better than Liberty ,and nothing any worse than despotism, be it theological despotism of, the ,skies, the theocratic ·despotism of kings, or the d~mocratic despotism of majorities; and the labor re former who starts out to combat the despotism of capi talism with other' despotism no better lacks only power to be worse than the foe he encounters.'" Mr,Tucker then took him to' task for his inconsistency: MR. PINNEY is a man whocomhats the despotism of capital with that despotism which denies the liberty.to buy foreign goods .untaxed and that despotism which denies the liberty to issue notes to' circulate as currency. Mr. Pinney is driven into this inconsistency 'by 'his desire for high wages and. an abundance of money, .which he thinks it impossible to get except through tariff monopoly and money monopoly. , But religiousdejspotism. pleads a desire' for salvation, and moral despotism pleads a desire for purity, and prohibitory despotism pleads a desire' for, sobriety. Yet all these despotisms lead to hell, though all these hells are paved )'lith good intentions; and Mr. Pinney's hens are just as hot as any. The above extract shows that he knows Liberty to be the true way of salvation. Why, then" does he not steadily follow it?

, ¥r. Pinney combats prohibition in the name of Liberty. Thereupon I showed him that his argument was equally good ! against his own advocacy of a tariff ort imports and an ex elusive. government currency.· Carefully avoiding any illusion to' the analogy,' Mr. Pinney now rejoins: 4:tIn-brief, ,we are despotic because we believe it is our right to de£end ourselves from foreign invaders on the one, side and wild-cat swindlers on the other." 'Yes, just as despotic as the prohibtionists who believe it is their right to defend themselves from drunkards and rumsellers." Continuing his•controversy with me regarding the logic of, the principle of liberty,' Mr. Pinney says: ttThere is no analogy between prohibition and the tariff; the tariff prohibits no' man from indulging •his ,desire to trade where he pleases. It is simply a tax. It is slightly analogous to 'a license tax for" the privilege of selling .,liquor ,in a given 68 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY territory, but prohibition, in theory if not in practice, is an entirely different matter."

This is a distinction without a difference. The so-called prohibitory liquor law prohibits no man, even theoretically, from indulging his desire to sell liquor; it simply subjects the man so indulging to fine and imprisonment. The tax imposed by the tariff law and the fine ilnposed by .the prohibitory law share alike the nature: of a penalty, and are equally invasive of liberty. Mr. Pinney's argument, though of no real validity in any case, would present at least a show of reason in the mouth of a ((revenue reformer"; but, coming from one who scorns the idea of raising revenue by the tariff and who has declared explicitly that he desires the tariff to be so effectively prohib itory that it shall yield no revenue at all, i ~ lacks even the ap pearance of logic. Equally lame is Mr. Pinney's apology for a compulsory money system: HAs for the exclusive government currency which we advo cate, and which Mr. Tucker tortures into prohibition of in dividual property scrip, there is just as much analogy as there is between prohibition and .the exclusive law-making, treaty ....

making, war-declaring, or any other powers delegated to gov ernment because government better than the individual can be intrusted with and make use of these powers." Just as much, I agree; and in this I can see a good reason why Mr. Pinney, who started out with the proposition that (Cthere is nothin~ better than liberty and nothing a1;ly worse than despotism," should oppose law-making, treaty-making, war-declaring, etc., but none whatever why he should favor an exclusive government currency. How much ((torture" it requires to extract the idea of ((prohibition of individual prop erty scrip" from the idea of an rr exclusive government. cur rency" our readers will need no help in deciding, unless the word cCexclusive"has acquired some new meaning as. unknown to them as it is to me. But Mr. Pinney's brilliant ideas are not exhausted yet. He continues: cCGovernmentprohibits the taking of private property for public uses without just compensation. Therefore, if we fit· Mr. Tucker's Procrustean bed, we cannot sustain this form of prohibition and consistently oppose prohibition of liquor 'INDIVIDUAL LIbERTY '69 drinking! This is consistency run niad,tanalogy' reduced to an absurdity. We are astonished that Mr. Tucker can be guilty of. it."

So am I. Or rather, I should be astonished if I had been guilty of it. But I haven't. To say nothing of the fac.t that the governmental prohibition here spoken of is a prohibition laid by government upon itself, and that such prohibitions can never .be displeasing to an, Anarchist, it is clear that the taking of private property from. persons who. ha.ve !violated the right~ .of nobody is invasion, and to the prohibition of .'invasion no friend of liberty has any objection. Mr. Pinney has already resorted 'to the plea of invasion as an excuse for his advocac;y of a tariff, and it would be a good defence if he could estab~ fish it. But I have pointed out to him 'that the pretence that the f()rei~nmerchantwho sells goods to American citizens or the ··individual who offers .his I '0 Uare invaders is as flinisy 'as' the prohibitionist's pretence' that the rumseller a\1d the . :drunkard are invaders. Neither invasion nor evasion will re lieveMr. Pinney of his dilemma.

In an unguarded rnoment of righteous impatience with the folly of the prohibitionists •.• Mr. Pinn~y. had. given utterance to soine very extreme and Anarchistic doctrine. I applauded him,. and, ventured to call his attention to onei or .. two forms of prohibition other than that of the liquor traffi~,equally repug nant to his .theory of liberty and yet· charhpioned by him. , One of these was the tariff. He answered me that ttthere is no ,analogy between· prohibition and the tariff; •the' tariff pro hibits no rnan from indulging his desire to trade where he pleases." Right· here logomachy made its. first. appearance, over. the word cCprohibit.:" I had cited two. forms of State in terference with trade, each of which in practice either annoys it or hampers it or effectively prevents it, according to circum stances. This analogy in substantial results presented a diffi culty, which Mr. Pinney tried. to overcome by beginning a dis puteover the meaning of the word ccprohibit,"-amatter of only formal moment so far as the present discussion is con cerned. He declared that the tariff is not like the prohibitory liquor law, inasmuch as it prohibits nobody from trading where he' pleases. A. purelynorninal distinction, if even that; .consequently Mr. Pinney, in passing it off as a real one, was guilty •• of .quibbling-.

70 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y But I met Mr. Pinney on his own ground, allowing that, speaking exactly, the tariff does not prohibit, but adding, on the other hand, that neither does the so-called prohibitory liquor law; that both simply impose penalties on traders, in the one case as a condition, in the other as a consequence, of carrying on their trades. Hence my analogy still stood, and I expected it to be grappled with. But no. Mr. Pinney, in the very breath that he protests against quibbling, insists on his quibble by asking if prison discipline is, then, so lax that convicted liquor sellers can carryon their business within the walls, and by supposing that I would still think prohibition did not prohibit, if the extreme penalty for liquor selling were decapitation. I do not dispute the fact that a man cannot carryon the liquor business as long as he is in prison, nor can Mr. Pinney dispute the fact that a man cannot sell certain foreign goods in this ·country as long as he cannot raise the money to pay the tariff; and while I am confident that de capitation, if rigorously enforced, would stop the liquor traffic, I am no less sure that the effect on foreign traffic would be equally disastrous were decapitation to be enforced as a tax upon importers. On Mr. Pinney's theory the prohibitory liquor laws could be made non-prohibitory simply by chang ing the penalties from imprisonments to fines. The absurdity of this is evident.

But, if I were to grant that Mr~ Pinney's quibble shows that there is no analogy between a ptohibitory liquor law and a revenue tariff (which I do not grant, but deny), it would still remain for him to show that there is no analogy between a pro hibitory liquor law and such a tariff as he favors,-one so high as to be absolutely prohibitory and yield no revenue at all,-or else ad,mit his inconsistency in opposing the former and not the latter. He has not attempted to meet this point, even with a quibble. One other point, however, he does try to meet. To my statement that his position on the abstract question of liberty involves logically· opposition to government in all its functions he makes this answer: UBetween puritan meddling with a man's domestic affairs, and necessary government regulation of matters which the in dividual is incompetent to direct, yet which must be directed in order to secure to the individual his rightful· liberty, there LIBER.TY 7"£' is a distance sufficiently large. tOg1ve £uUplay to~ur 1i~ited faculties."·· .• ..' ~utwho,is to judge what government regulation isttneces saty" and decide what matters ttthe individual is incompetent to direct"? The majority? ... But the Illajority are just as likely to decide that prohibition is necessary and that the in dividual is incompetent to direct his appetite as that a tariff is necessary and that the individual is incompetent to. make his own contracts. Mr. Pinney,then,rnhstsubrnit to the will. of the 111ajority. His •••original··d~claration, ·.however,·.··was·•• that despotism .w~s. despotism, .. whether exercised by a monarch. or•. a.

majority. This drives· him .·back. upon liberty •in iaHthings. For just as/he would object to the reign of a monarch disposed. toadministe~affairs. rationally and equitably simply because he w~samonarch,so. he must. ohjectto the. reign of a major ity,even ,though its administration were his ideal, simply be cause it is a majority. Mr• Pinney>is trying to $erve both Iibertyandauthority, and is making himself ridiculous in the attempt. ANARCHISM. AND\ CAPITAL PUNISHMENT SINCE the/execution of Ke111mler, I have seen it stated .re peatedly in the press, and especially in the reform press,. and even in the Anarchistic press, that that execution was a mur der. IhaV'ealso.seenit stated that capital punishment is murder in its -worst form. .I should like to know UpOl1 what principle of hum"n society these .assertions are based and justified. If they are based on the principle that punishment inflicted by.acompulsorY.institution which manufactures the criminals is worse than the· crime punished, I· can ·understand •. them and in some degree sympathize 'with them. .But in tnat. case I cannot see why capita/punishment should besingled out .for emphatic and exceptiollal. denunciation. The. same objection applies as clearly!to punishment that simply takes·away liberty as to •punishmept. tJtat .takes ·aw"y'.. life.

The use of thy worn capitat makes .me suspect that this. de :nunciatioll rests 'on some other ground than that which I have just suggested. :But what is this ground?

72. I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y If society has a right to protect itself against such men as Kemmler, as is admitted, why may it not do so in whatever way proves most effective? If it is urged that capital punish ment is not the most effective way, such an argument, well sustained by facts, is pertinent and valid. This position also I can understand, and with it, if not laid down as too absolute a rule, I sympathize. But this is not to say that the society which inflicts capital punishment commits murder. Murder is an offensive act. The term cannot be applied legitimately to any defensive act. And capital punishment, however in effective it may be and through whatever ignorance it may be resorted to, is a strictly defensive act,-at least in theory. Of course compulsory institutions often make it a weapon of offence, but that does not affect the question of capital pun ishment per se as distinguished, from other forms of govern ment.

For one, I object to this disti1).ction unless it is based on ra tional grounds. In doing so, I am not moved by any desire to defend the horrors of the gallows, the guillotine, or the electric chair. They are as repulsive to me as to anyone. And the conduct of the physicians, the ministers, the news papers, and the officials disgusts me. .These horrors all tell most powerfully against the expediency and efficiency of cap ital punishment. But nevertheless they do not make it mur der. I insist that there is nothing sacred in the life of an invader, and there is no valid principle of human society that forbids the invaded to protect themselves in whatever way they can. LIBERTY AND PROPERTY Mr. Hugo BiIgram of Philadelphia, author of uInvol untary Idleness" and ((The Cause of Business Depres sions," contributed an article to Liberty on <cThe Right of Ownership," in which he defined that right as uthat reIation between a thing and a person created by the social promise to guarantee possession"; and then pro pounded to the editor of Liberty the following question: INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 73 «(Has Anarchism a, diffetentconception. of the right of ownership, or,isthis right altogether 'repudiated, or is itassul11ed that out of ~he ruins of government another social organization, wielding a supreme power,.will arise?"

',Mr. Tuc,ker replied: IN DISCUSSING •such a question as. this, it is necessary at. the start'to put •. aside,,/ilsMr.·.Bilgram douhtless, does put aside, .the intuitive i4ea of right, the' conception of right as a standar~ which we are expected to observe from motives supposed'to be st,lperior.to the .consideration.of .•our.interests .• When,•. I 'speak of theUright of ownership," I do not use the word, «right" in that sense at all. In the thought that I take to be fund a..;, mental in Mr.··.·nilgram'sargument-namely, that there is. no right, from thestandpoint of society, other than social expedi ency-I fully concur .. ~u~. I a111equally .certain that the standard of social expediency-thai is to say, the. facts a,s to \,what really is ~ocially expedient, and the generalizations from those facts which we may call the laws of social expedien.cy --exists apart from thedecreeofa9ysocialpower wpatever.

In accordance with this view.,the Anarchistic def1nitiob of the right o£ ownership, while. closely related· to Mr. Bilgram's,is such a. modification of his t~,at it does not carry the implica tionwhich his carries.and which he points out. From an An archistic standpoint, the right ofownership.is that control of ;l thing by a person whichwHI receive either social sanctioll, or else unanimQ~s, individuals~nction,. when the laws of social expediency shall havebeen~nallydiscovered.. (Of' course I might go farther. ,and •. explainthat Anarchism considers •the greatest amount of liberty compatible with equality of •liberty the tundamental:law ot. social expediency, and that nearly all Anarchists consider labor. to be the only>basis of the right of ownership in harmony with thatJa:w;butthis is not essential to the definition, or to the refutation: of Mr. Bilgram's point against Anarchism. ) It will be seen that the .•Anarchistic definition just given does not imply necessarily' the existence of ,an'organized. or. in stitutedsocial power to •enforce the right of •ownership. , It cqntemplatesa .time when' social sanction shall be superseded J,yunanimous individual sanction, thus rendering enforcement 74 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y needless. But in such an event, by Mr. Bilgram's definition, the right of ownership would cease to exist. In other words, he seems to think that, if all men were to agree upon a prop erty standard and should voluntarily observe it, property would then have no existence simply because of the absence of any institution to protect it. Now, in the view of the Anarchists, property would then exist in its perfection.

So I would answer Mr. Bilgram's question, as put in his concluding paragraph, as follows: Anarchism does not repu diate the right of ownership, but it has a conception thereof sufficiently different from Mr. Bilgram's to include the possi bility of an end 'of that social organization which will arise, not out of the ruins of .government, but out of the transfor mation of government into voluntary association for defence. ANARCHISM AND FORCE BECAUSE I claim and teach that Anarchism justifies the ap plication of force to invasive men and condemns force only when applied to non-invasive men, Mr. Hugh o. Pentecost declares that the only difference between Anarchism on the one hand and Monarchism or Republicanism on the other is the difference between the popular conception of invasion and my own. If I were to assert that biology is the. science which deals with the phenomena of living matter and excludes all phenomena of matter that is not living, and if Mr. Pente cost were to say that, assuming this, the only difference be tween the biological sciences and the abiological is the differ ence between the popular conception of life and my own, he would take a position precisely analogous to that which he takes on the subject of Anarchism, and the one position would be every whit as sensible and every whit as foolish as the other.

The limit between invasion and non-invasion, like the limit be tween life and non-life, is not, at least in our present compre hension of it, a hard and fast line. But does it follow from this that invasion and non-invasion, life and non-life, are identical? Not at all. The indefinite character of the boun dary does no more than show that a small proportion of the I~ i I INDIVTDUALLIBERTY 7J phenomena of· society,. like '. a small . proportion of the phenomena of matter,. still resists·the. respective distinguishing tests to which by far the greater portion of such phenomena have .yielded and by which they have been classifi'ed. And however embarrassing .in practice may be. the reluctance of frontier phenomena to promptly arrange themselves on either side. of the. border in obedience. to the tests, it. is •stiH more embarrassing i11 theory to attempt to frame any rational view of society or life without recognition of these tests, by which, broadly speaking, distinctions have been established. Some of the most manifest distinctions. have never been sharply drawn.

IfMr. Pentecost willviewthe.subjectin this light and£()l low out the .reasoning thus. entered upon~he .willsoon discover that my conception or misconception of. what constitutes. in vasion does not at all affect the .scientific differentiation of Anarchismfrom.Archism. I may err grievously in attributing a.•....n•..•..•.•....inv..•..•.a••S.l.V•...••e•. or.. a•..·n.. o.•n.'-i.. nv..•..a.si.ve..•••C..h.•.a.rac.t.er.• t.o.. a g.l.ve.n.. 50.cial••...••p.h••.•,e.. - (.•••..nomen.on,and, if I act upon my error,! shall act Archisti ... cally; but the very fact that I am acting, not blindly and at hap-hazard, but in furtherance of an endeavor to conform to a generalization which is .the product of long experience and ~\' accumulating evidence, adds infinitely to the probability that I 1 shall discover my error. In trying.to draw more clearly the , line between invasion and non-invasion, .•all. of us, myself. in cluded, are •.destinedtomake many. mistakes, but by our .very mistakes we shaH approa.ch our goal..•• Only Mr. Pentecost and those who think withhi111 take themselves out of the path of progress by assuming that it is possible to live in harmony .simply by ignoringthe.£act of friction and the causes thereof.

The no..rule which Mr. Pente~ostbelieves in would amount in practice to submission to the rule .of the invasive .rnan. No-rule,. in the sense of. no-force-in-any-case, is a self-contra diction.The man Iwhoatte111pts to practice it becomes.... an abettor of. government by •declining' to resist it. So long.as Mr. Pentecost is wining. ~o left the. criminal .ride roughshod over. him and me, hi$. upl1'eferencenot to be ruled at all" is~ nothing but a beatHic r~veUing in sheerest moonshine>and Utopia.

76 INDIVIDUAL LIBRR TY METHODS PASSIVE RESISTANCE How are you going to put your theories into practice? is the eternal question propounded by students of· sociol ogy to the expounders of Anarchism. To one of those inquirers the editor of Liberty; made this reply: UEDGEWORTH" makes appeal to me through Lucifer to know how I propose to Hstarve out Uncle Sam." Light on this subject he, would Hrather have than roast beef and plum pud ding for dinner in scecula sceculorum." It puzzles him to knpw whether by' the clause Hresistance to taxation" on the Usphynx head of Liberty on CGod and the State'" I mean that CCttueAnarchists should advertise their principles by allowing property to be seized by the sheriff and sold at auction, in order by such personal sacrifices to become known to each other as men and women of a common faith, true to that faith'in the teeth of their interests and trustworthy for combined action." If I do mean this, he ventures to (Cdoubt the policy of a test which depletes, not that enormous vampire, Uncle Sam, but our own little purses, so needful for our propaganda of ideas, several times a year, distrain ment by the sheriff being in many parts of the country practi cally equivalent to tenfold taxes." If, on the other hand, I have in view a minority capable of cCsuccessfullywithdrawing the supplies from Uncle Sam's treasury," he would like to inquire (Chow any minority, however respectable in numbers and intelligence, is to withstand the sheriff 'backed by /the army, and to withhold tribute to the State."

Fair and pertinent questions these, which I take pleasure in answering. In the first place, then, the policy to be pursued by individual and isolated Anarchists is dependent upon cir cumstances. I, no more than ((Edgeworth," believe in any foolish waste of needed material. It is not wise warfare to throw your ammunition to the enemy unless you throw it from the cannon's mouth., But if you can compel the enemy to waste his ammunition' by drawing his fire on some thorINDlVIDUAL LIBERTY 77 oughly protected spot; if you can, by annoying and goading andharas~inghirn in all .possible ways~drive him to the last resort of stripping bare ..• his tyrannous and invasive. purposes.' and··put him· in the attitude of a designing villain assailing honest men •for. purposes·of •. plunder,-there is .no better strat egy.Let no Anarchist, then, place.his property within reach of the sheriff'scl~tch. But some. year, wllenhe feels ex ceptionally strong and.independent, when his conduct can im...

p!lir .. no serious personal obligations,. when on the whole.'he would a little rather go to jail thanl1ot,and when his prop'" erty is in such shape that he can successfully conceaLit,let him declare to· the assessor property of a •certain. value,. and then defy the collector to .collect. Or, if he. have no prop erty, lethim.decHneto pay his poll tax... The State will then bep-gt to its trumps .. O£twothings one,-either it will let him alone, and then he will tell his neighbors all aboutit,re suIting the. next year· in· an alarming disposition on their part. to keep .their own· money· in their own pockets; or else it will imprison him, and then by the requisite legalptocesses he will demand andsec-greall the rights of a civil prisoner and live thusad~cently. comfortable life until the State shall get tired of supporting him. and the increasing number of per sons.• who. will follow .. his example. Unless, indeed,. the State, 'in desperation, shall)see fit to 11lake.its laws regarding imprison ment for. taxes more rigorQus, and then, if our Anarchist be a determined man, we shall:6.nd out how tat a republicangov ernment, ccderiving its just powers from the consent of the govetned," is ready to go to procure that uconsent,"~whether itwiJI stop at. solitary· confinement ~ a dark cell or join with the Czar. of Russia in administering torture by .elec..., tricity. The_ farther· it shall go the better it. will be for Anarchy, ••••~s every student of. the history of·•• reform, well knows,", Who can estimate .the power for propagandismofa ,few cases of this .kind, backed .by a well-organized foxce of agitators without the prison walls? So much, then, for. indi...

vidual resistance.' Bui,if individuals cando so much~ what shall be said of the en.ormous and utterly irresistible power ora large and intelli,. gent 11linority, cornprisin-gsay one-fifth of the pppulationin allY. given .. locality?· .1,'conceive.that on this .point I .need .do n(:.l.lI1ore.th.an ~al1 UEdgeWQrth's" attention ·to, thewonde'r78 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY fully instructive history of the Land League movement in Ireland, the most potent and instantly effective revolutionary force the world has ever known so long as it stood by its {)riginal policy of CCPay No Rent," and which lost nearly all its strength the day it abandoned that policy. ccOh, but it -did abandon it?" CCEdgeworth"will exclaim. Yes, but why? Because there the peasantry, instead of being an intelligent minority following the lead of principles, were an ignorant, -though enthusiastic and earnest, body of men following blindly the lead of unscrupulous. politicians like Parnell, who really wanted anything but the, abolition of rent, but were willing to temporarily exploit any sentiment or policy that would float them into power and influence. But it was pursued far -enough to show that the British government was utterly powerless before it; and it is scarcely too much to say, in my opinion, that, had it been persisted in, there would not to-day be a landlord in Ireland. It is easier to resist taxes in this country than it is to resist rent in Ireland; and such a policy would be as much more potent here than there as the intelligence of the people is greater, providing always that you can enlist in it a sufficient number of earnest and determined men and women. If one-fifth of the people were to resist tax ation, it would cost more to collect their taxes, or try to col lect them, than the other four-fifths would consent to pay :into the treasury, The force· needed for this bloodless fight Liberty is slowly but surely recruiting, .and sooner or later it will organize for action. Then, Tyranny and Monopoly, down goes your house!

(CPassive resistance,". said Ferdinand Lassalle, with an ob tuseness thoroughly German, ((is the resistance which does not resist." Never was there a greater mistake. It is the only resistance which in these days of military discipline resists with any result. There is not a tyrant in the civilized world to-day who would not do anything in his power to precipitate a bloody revolution rather than see himself confronted by any large fraction of his subjects determined not to obey. An insurrection is easily quelled; but no army is willing or able to train its guns on inoffensive people who do not even gather in the streets but stay at home and stand back on their rights. Neither the ballot nor the bayonet is to play any great part in the coming struggle; passive resistance' is the instrument by INDIVIDUA·L LIBERTY 79 which the revolutionary force is destined to secure in the last great ,. cQnflict .the people's rights forever.

The .idea. that· .Anarchy .can· be inaugurated< by ·£orce is as fallacious.as the idea.that .• it '.can.be sustained· by force. Force cannot '. preserve Anarchy ; neither can it. bring it. In. fact, one of the inevitable .• influences of the use of force'is to postpone Anarchy. The only thing that force can ever do for us is to save •us ftom ~~tiflCtiof1, ,to, give Ug .!l longer le1!u~ of life in which to try to secure Anarchy by the only. methods that can ever bring it. But this adv~ntage is always purchased at im mensecost, and its attainme~t is·always attended by frightful risk. The attempt should be made only when the risk of any other ·course is greater .•, Wb.en a· physician sees that his pa tient's strength is being exhausted so rapidly by theinten~ity of his agony .that .. h~·wil1 dieI ofexha ustion before the medical processes inaugurated have a !chance to 40 their curative work, headrninisters an 0riate. B*tagood physician is always loth to do so, knowing that one of the influences of the. opiate is to interfere with .•. and Idefeat. t,ne medical'·processes.·themselves.

He never. does it e~ceptas· ~,choice of .• evils. ... It is the same with the use of fotce, whe~her of the mob or of the State, upon. diseased ·SQciety; ·and. not only· those. who prescribe its indiscriminate use·,jas ·a.• sov~reign remedy and •. a permanent tonic,· but all ,wh0j.ver propose it as a cure, and ,even all who would lightly and unnecessal1ilyresort to it,not as a cure, but as an expedient,are social ,quacks. , The power of passive resistance has beenstrikinglyillus tratedin Russiaf 1905 -6] .•.She has had three Ugeneral strikes," and only .• the first one. was. truly ,m'agnificently successful. It was absolutely pacific; it was of the sort that Tolstoi has been. urging •for ,.ears.· Workmen, clerks,profession,al men, even government employees and dvorniks(janitors' converted into spies< and informers) ,simply dropped their· tools, .briefs, <iocuments,and what not, and refused to carryon the actiyi ties of industrial and political life. The result, onthegov ernment's side, was panic. A. constitution was granted; a wnoleseries. o£ re£orms-on paper-followed. , The. second strike was called when ~he ,circumstances were un£aVe)rable·and the <causesdistincdy doubtful •in· the opin80 IN D I V I D U ALL I BE R T Y ion of the majority of the government's enemies. It failed, and the consequent bitterness and apprehension led tp a third strike, with an appeal to arms at Moscow. That appeal was most unfortunate; the revolutionary elements had overesti mated their strength, and greatly underestimated that of the autocratic-bureaucratic machine. The army was loyal, and the CCrevolution"was crushed. Now the government has regained its confidence, and is reviving the Plehve tactics. It is suppress ing not merely revolutionary bodies and manifestations, but liberal and constitutional ones as well. Reaction is admittedly a strong probability, and the really substantial victories of October may be forfeited.

Of course, human nature is human nature, and it were both idle and unfair to blame the distracted and exasperated Russian radicals for the turn events have taken. Witte has not been honest; the Bourbons were at no time in actual fear of his liberalism. Quite likely any other. body of men would have acted as the Russian intellectuals and proletariat committees have acted. Still the fact remains that, had the pol icy of strictly passive resistance been continued, and had not the strike and boycott weapon been too recklessly used, the cause of freedom and progress in Russia would to-day rejoice in .much brighter prospects. Whatever reform Russia shall be shown by developments to have secured she will certainly owe to the peaceful demonstration of the uRed Sunday" and to the passive strike. Passive resistance and boycotting are now prominent fea tures of every great national movement. Hungary having been threatened with absolutism, and being, probably, too weak to risk war with Austria, what does she do? Her na tional leaders talk about a boycott against Austrian products and passive resistance to the collection of taxes and the r~ cruiting of troops. In some localities the resistance has al ready been attempted, with results as painful as demoralizing to· the agents of· the Austrian government. The. boycotting of Austrian products mayor may not be irrational, but this tendency to resort to boycotting is a sign of the times.

Of the superior effectiveness of passive resistance to arbi trary and invasive policies it is hardly necesary to speak. It may be noted, however, that the labor members of the Brit ish Parliament seem to appreciate the full power of this method INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 81 of defence. The Balfour...clerical education bill, a reactionary measure, has largely been nullified in Wale$by the refusal of its opponents to pay the school rates. The labor group demands legislation throwing the burden of schoo1.supportand main tenance on the" national treasury. Under such a. system, passive.resistance to the school. act would be rendered almost impossible, for riationaltaxation is largely indirect. The reactionaries perceive .. this) and are not at all· averse to the proposal. . Local autonomy in taxationand direct local rates are very advantageous to passive resisters, and labor is short sighted in .giving up the adavantage.

THE· FUTILITY OF. THE BALLOTI No superstition was so tirelessly and so mercilessly attacked by· the editor of. Liberty as that of· the ballot. To·those· who defended it and .advocated it as a means ~f sl\~w:ing liberty h~ was alWayt ready with a biting answer. lfere are .some samples of uch: GENERAL· BUTLER'S long-expected letter .[in acceptance of the nomination for· the presidency given him by the labor party] is out at last. The question now is how many it. will lioodwink.Among these at le.ast will not be.Liberty. Would that as much could· be asserted of all who think they believe in Liberty. But the political habit is a clinging one; the fasci nations of political warfare seldom altogether lose their charm over those who have once been under its influence; traceso£ faith in its efficacy still linger in the minds of .those who sup pose themselves emancipated; the old majority superstition yet •taints the. reformer's blood, and, in .f,ace of the evils tha_t threaten society's life, he appeals to its saving grace with the same curious.·mixture of doubt and· confidence that sometimes leads a. wavering and timorous Infidel, when brought face to face 'iith the fancied terrors of death, to re-embrace the theo logical superstition from •which his· good sense has once re volted and to declare his pelief on the Lord Jesus, lest, as one of them is said to have profanely put it, «there maybe, after 82 IN D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y all, a God, or a Christ, or a Hell, or some damned thing or other ." To such as these, then, Butler will look for some of his strength, and not be disappointed.

The audacity of this demagogue's utterances, the fearlessness with which he exposes'such shams and frauds and tyrannies as he does not himself champion, the fury of his onslaught on those hypocrites in high places to dislodge whom for his own benefit and glory he himself hypocritically espouses the cause of the people, all tend to fire such radical hearts as have no radical heads to guide them, and accordingly we see on every hand reformers ,of every stripe, through their press and on their platforms, enlisting in the service of this incarnation of reac tion, this personification of absolutism, this total stranger to the principle of Liberty, this unscrupulous plunderer of labor" this servant of the fearful trinity of the people's enemies, being at once an insincere devotee of the Church, a steadfast lover of a mammoth and omnipotent State, and a bloated benefi ciary of the exactions of Capital.

The platform announced in his letter is a ridiculous tissue of contradictions and absurdities. Anti-monopoly only. in name, it sanctions innumerable monopolies and privileges, and avowedly favors class legislation. As far as it is not nonde script, it is the beginning of State Socialism,-that is, a long step towards the realization of the most gigantic and appalling monopoly ever conceived by the mind of man. One sentence in it, however, commands my approbation ((The laboring man votes for his Fetich, the Democratic party, and the farmer votes for his Fetich, the Republican party, and the result is that both are handed over as captives to the corruptionists and monopolists, whichever side wins. Mark this: the laborersana the people never win!" True, every word of it! But why not go alittle farther? Suppose both laborer and farmer vote for their new Fetich, Ben Butler and his party of State Socialism, what will be the result then? Will not both be handed over as captives to a band of corruptionists as much larger and greedier as the reach and resources of the government are made vaster, all in the service and pay, not of a number of distinct and relatively weak monopolies, but of one consolidated mo nopoly whose rapacity will know no bounds? No doubt about it whatever. Let those who will, then, bow before this idol, no Anarchistic knee shall bend. We Anarchists have not come INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 83 for. that. We .come to. shatter Fetiches, not to kneel before them ,---no more before Fetich Butler than Fetich Blaine or Fetich Cleveland ••orFetich .~t ..John. ·.Weare here. to. let in the light of Liberty upon political superstition, and from that policy can result no captivity to corruption, nO subserviency to monopoly, only a world· of free .laborers controlling the products of their labor and growing richer every day.

. 1 greatlyadmirefiugh O. Pentecost. lie is a growing and a fair-minded man. His Twentieth Century, now published weekly·in an enlarged form, is doing a useful work. He al.. ready. accepts Anarchy· as an ultimate, and. the whole tenor of his writings -is•leading him on, it seems to me, to a casting .. off of his devotion to the· single-tax •movement and to reforms stillmore distinctly State Socialistic, and to a direct advocacy of Anarchistic principles and methods. It is because.I believe thi$ that I ·feel.like reasoning .·with him .regarding a vital·in consistency in his· discourse of· January 13 on CCBallots or Btllletst"· in which, moreover, the.· tendency referred to is marked. After laying it down as a principle that force is never justi... nable (and, by the. way,· I cannot accept so absolute a denial of£orce as this,. though I heartily agree .that force is futile in almost all circumstances) ,he goes on as follows: ((If it is not justifiable for the establishment· and maintenance of .govern..

ment,.neither is it justifiable for the·overthrow or modification of .. governm.ent.l. • • The intellectual and moral process. of reg.eneration is ~lowerthan force, but it is right; and when the·work is thu~ done, it has the merit of having been done properly and thtroughIY." So far, excellent. But mark the next sentence: .cThe balfot is the people's agency even for correcting its 0 n evils, and it seems to me a social criqle to refrain· from· it .use for .regenerative purposes until it is absolutely demo strated that· it is a failure as an instrument for. freedom." .' Now, what is,~he. ballot?. It is neither more nor less than a paper representa ive of the bayonet, the billy, and the bullet. It is a labor-savi g device forascertmning on which side force lies and bowing to the inevitable. The voice of the majority saveshloodshed, but it is no less•• the arbitrament of .force than is the. decree of the· most absolute of despots backed by the 84 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y most powerful of armies. Of course it may be claimed that the struggle to attain to the majority involves an incidental use of intellectual and moral proc~&ses; but these influences woul~ exert themselves still more powerfully in other chan nels if there were no such thing as the ballot, and, when used as subsidiary to the ballot, they represent only a striving for the time when physical force can be substituted for. them.

Reason devoted to politics fights for its own dethronement. The moment the minority becomes the majority, it ceases to reason and persuade, and begins to command and enforce and punish. If this be true,-and I think that Mr. Pentecost will have difficulty in gainsaying it,-it follows that to use the ballot for the modification· of government is to use force for the modification of government; which sequence makes it at .once evident that Mr. Pentecost in his conclusion pronounces it a social crime to avoid that course which in his premise he declares unjustifiable. It behooves Mr. Pentecost to examine this charge of in consistency carefully, for his answer to it must deeply affect his career. If he finds that it is well-founded, the sincerity of his nature will oblige him to abandon all such political measures as the taxation of land values and the government ownership of banks. and railroads and devote himself to Anarchism, which offers not only the goal that he seeks,.but confines itself to those purely educational methods of reach ing it with which he finds himself in sympathy.

VOLUNTARY COOPERATION A REMEDY; Mr. Wordsworth Donisthorpe, of London, wrote a lengthy plaint in Liberty, setting forth his woes as a citizen beset with various difficulties. He wished to be informed if Anarchism could free him from those woes, whereupon Mr. Tucker tried to lead him to the light: THE Anarchists never have claimed that liberty will bring perfection; they simply say that its results are vastly preferINDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 85 able tothos~ that follow authority. Under liberty Mr. Don· isthorpe may have to listen for some minutes every day to the •. barrel-organ (though I really think that. it will never lodge him in. the mad-house), hut· at •least he will have the privilege of going to the music-hall inthe evening; w~ereas, uncler authority, even in its most honest .and consistent form, he will get rid of the barrel-organ only at the expense of' being deprived of the music-hall, and, in its less honest, .less con·~istent, ~ndmoreprobable lorm, he may lose the Inuslc hall at the same time that he ·is· forced to endure the barrel.

organ.Asa choice of blessings, liberty is the greater; jasa choice of evils, liberty is the smaller. Then liberty always, say the Anarchists. No use of· force, except against the in, vader; and in /thosecases where it is difficult to tell whether the alleged offend.eris an invad,eror not, stiIlnol1se of force except where the necessity of. immediate. solution is so im perative that' we must· use it to save ourselves.. Andinthese few cases where we must use. it, let' us do so frankly and squarely, acknowledging it as a matter of necessity, without seeking to harmonize 0tU" action with any political ideal or constructing any far-fetched theory ofa State. or collectivity having prerogatives and rights superior to those of individuals' and aggregations of individuals and exempted. from the. opera tionofthe ethical priJ;lcipleswhich individuals are expected to .. observe•. But to say. all.. this to Mr. Donisthorpe is like carrying coals to N ewcatsle. • He knows as.well. as I do that cCliherty is not the· daughter, but the mother of order."

I. will.try to deal briefly·with Mr•.Donisthorpe's questions. To •• his· first: CCI-Iowfar may voluntary· cooperators invade the liberty of others?" . I answer: Not at .all. Under this head I. have. previously made. answer to Mr.. Donisthorpe and this is the best rule that I can frame, as a guide to vohJntary cooperators. To apply ittoqnly one of Mr. Donis thorpe's cas~s, I think •that u llder a .• ststem of. Anarchy, even if. it were. admitted that. there. was isome ground.· for considering an unvaccinated person. an inrader, it would be generally recp,gnized.. that. such invasion,•. was not of a •character to require treatment .l"yforce,an4. that any attempt to treat it by .force would. be regarded .a~. itself .an .. invasion ofa less 86 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY ooubtful and more immediate nature, requiring as such to be resisted. But under a system of Anarchy how is such resistance to be made? is Mr. Donisthorpe's second question. By another band of voluntary cooperators. But are we then, Mr. Don isthorpe will ask, to have innumerable bands of voluntary co~operators perpetually at war with each other? Not at all.

A system of Anarchy in actual operation implies a previous education of the people in the principles of Anarchy, and that in turn implies such a distrust and hatred of interference that the only band of voluntary cooperators which could gain support sufficient to enforce its will would be that which either entirely refrained from interference or reduced it to a minimum. This would. be my answer to Mr. Donisthorpe~ were I to admit his assumption ofa state of Anarchy super vening upon a sudden collapse of Archy. But I really scout this assumption as absurd. Anarchists work for the aboli tion of the State, but by this they mean not its overthrow~ but, as Proudhon put it, its dissolution in the economic or ganism. This being the case, the question before us is not, as Mr. Donisthorpe supposes, what measures and means of inter ference we are justified in instituting, but which ones of those already existing we should first lop off. And to this the Anarchists answer that unquestionably the first to go should be those that interfere most fundamentally with a free market, and that the economic and moral changes that would result.

from this would act as a solvent upon all the remaining forms of interference. (tIs compulsory cooperation ever desirable?" Compulsory cooperation is simply one form of invading the liberty of others, and voluntary cooperators will not be justified in re sorting to it-that is, in becoming compulsory cooperators any more than resorting to any other form of invasion. tCHow are we to remove the injustice of allowing one man to enjoy what another has earned?" I do not expect it ever to be removed altogether. But I believe that for every dollar that would be enjoyed by tax-dodgers under Anarchy, a thou sand dollars are now enjoyed by men who have got possession of the earnings of others through special industrial, com mercial, and :financial privileges granted them by authority in violation of a free market.

ECONO'MICS 1-·.MONEY. AND ·INTEREST CAPITAL, PROFITS, AND 'INTEREST In the' study '0£ the economic question, .the first fhingthatmust .engage.ourattentionisiwhythe wor~er, fails, to get .allof. the product <if his •labor. ¥ol U1l1esbavebeen, written by economists of various schools in discussion of the .prohlem" most of them muddling' about in the mire of their own misconceptions. , But tneedito~of Liberty went straightto the heart of the tna~ter and quickly found the answer: ttSQMEBODY gets the surplus wealth that .labor produces and does.· not consume. Who isth~ Somebody?" Such is the prQble1l1recently posited in the editorial columns of •the New York Tr1J,th'. Substantially the same •question has been asked a great. many times' before, but,. as might have been expected~ this .new. f()rm of putting. it has created. no small hubbub. T.ruth'scolumns are full of it; other journals are taking it up; clubs, are organizing to discuss it; the people are thinking about it; stude:pts are pondering oVer ~it. For' it is a most mornentous question. .A correct answer ~o it is unquestion ably the ·:first step in the settlement of the appalling problem' of.)poverty, intemperance, .ignorance, and -crime. Truth,. 'in selecting it 'as a subject on which to harp and hammer"from d~y to. day, shows itself a level-he~ded, far-sighted newspaper.

But, 11l1portantas it is, it is by no means a difficult question to, one ,who really considers.it before giving an answer, though the. variety and absurdity ,.0£ •ne~rly, all the replies ,thus far vollilnteered certainly tend to give an opposite impression. 87 Css INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY What are the ways by which men gain possession of prop erty? Not many. Let us name them: work, gift, discovery, gaming, the various forms of illegal robbery by force or fraud, usury. Can men obtain wealth by any other than one or more of these methods? Clearly, no.. Whoever the Somebody may be, then, he must accumulate his riches in one of these ways. We will find him by the process of elimination. Is the Somebody the laborer? No; at least riot as laborer; otherwise the question were absurd. Its premises exclude him. He gains a bare subsistence by his work; no more. We are searching for his surplus product. He has it not.

Is the Somebody the beggar, the invalid, the cripple, the discoverer, the gambler, the highway robber, the burglar, the defaulter, the pickpocket, or the common swindler? None of these, to any extent worth mentioning. The aggregate of wealth absorbed by these classes of our population com pared with the vast mass produced is a mere drop in the ocean, unworthy of consideration in studying a fundamental prob lem of political economy. These people get some wealth, it is true; enough, probably for their own purposes: but labor can spare them the whole of it, and never know the difference. Then we have found him. Only the usurer remaining, he must be the Somebody whom we are looking for; he, and none other. But who is the usurer, and whence comes his power? There are three forms of usury; interest on money, rent of land and houses, and profit in exchange. Whoever is in receipt of any of these is a usurer. And who is not? Scarcely anyone. The banker is a usurer; the manufacturer is a usurer; the merchant isa usurer; thelandlotd is a usurer; and the workingman who puts his savings, if he has any, out at interest, or takes rent for his house or lot, if he owns one, or exchanges his labor for more than an equivalent,-he too is a usurer. The sin of usury is one' under which all are concluded, and for which' all are responsible. But all do not benefit by it. The vast majority suffer. Only the chief usurers ac cumulate: in agricultural and thickly-settled countries, the landlords; in industrial and commercial countries, the bankers.

Those are the Somebodies who swallow up the surplus wealth. And where do the Somebodies get their power? From monopoly. Here, as usual, the State is the chief of ·sinners. Usury rests on two great monopolies,-the monopoly of land INDIVID U AL LIBERTY 89 and the monopoly of credit. Were it not for these, itwould disappear. Ground-rent exists only because the State stands by to collect it and to protect land-titles rooted in force or fralld. •Otherwise .. the land would. be free. to all, .and no one· could .control. more than he .used. Interest. and house-rent e:gist. only. because. the State grants' to a certain class of individuals. and corporations the exclusive privilege of using itscredit·d'~nd theirs as a basis for the issuance of circulating curre,ncy.. ·Otherwise credit would be :tree to all,.· and· Inoney:J brought under the law of. competition,. would be issued at ~ost. Interest and rent gone, competition would leave little or no ·chance •for. profit. in exchange except in .business pro':' tected by tariff or patent laws. And there again the State has'but to step aside to cause the last vestige of usury to disappear.

, •The. usurer is the Somebody, and the State is his protector. I Usufyis the serpent gnawing at labor's vitals, and only liberty can detach and· kill it. •Give laborers their liberty, and t4eywill keeptheir wealth. As for the Somebody, he, stripped o£h,is power to steal, must either join their ranks .or starve. _Mr. J. M. L. B.abcock,of B.oston, at that time a Greenbacker . but later becoming a thorough-going op ponent of interest~wrote in the columns of Liberty in defense ofb~th interest and profits. Mr. Tucker theteforehad to set him right: lttWHATEVER contributes to production is. entitled to. an equitable share in the distriblltion!" Wrong! Whoever con ,tributes to production is alone so entitled. What.has no rights that Whois bound to respect. What is •. a· thing. WhoiR a. 'person. Things have no claims; they -exist only to be claimed. The possession of a right •cannot be predicated of de·ad material t but only of a living person.•.uIn the production of a .loaf of btead,the plough performs an important service, and equitably comes in for a share of theloaf." Absurd!. A plough c~nnot own bread, and, if it could, would be unable to .eat it.

A plough is a What, one of those things above mentioned, to which no rights. are attrihutable. Oh! but. we see. «Suppose one man. . spends .his •life in 90 INDIVIDU AL LIBERTY making ploughs to be used by others who sow and harvest wheat. If he furnishes his ploughs only on condition that they be returned to him in as good state as when taken away, how is he to get his bread?" It is the maker of the plough, then, and not the plough itself, that is entitled to a reward? What has given place to Who. Well, we'll not quarrel over that. The maker of the plough certainly is entitled to pay for his work. Full pay, paid once; no more. That pay is the plough itself, or its equivalent in other marketable products, said equivalent· being measured by the amount of labor em ployed in their production. But if he lends his plough and gets only his plough back, how is he to get his bread? asks Mr. Babcock, much concerned. Ask us an easy one, if you please. We give this one up. But why should he lend his plough? Why does he not sell it to the farmer, and use the proceeds to buy bread of the baker? See, Mr. Babcock? If the lender of the plough ((receives nothing more than his plough again, he receives nothing for the product of his own labor, and is on the way to starvation." Well, if the fool will not sell his plough, let him starve. Who cares? It's his own fault. How can he expect to receive anything for the product of his own labor if he refuses to permanently part with it? Does Mr. Babcock propose to steadily add to this product at the t.xpense of some laborer, and meanwhile allow this idler, who has only made a plough, to loaf on in luxury, for the balance of his life, on the strength of· his one achieve ment? Certainly not, when our friend understands himself.

And then he will say with us that the slice of bread which the plough-lender should receive can be neither large nor small, hut must be nothing. We refer Mr. Babcock to one of his favorite authors, John Ruskin [in ((Letters to British Workmen," under the heading,. ccThe Position of William"], who argues this very point on Mr. Babcock's own ground, except that he illustrates his position by a plane instead of a plough. Mr. Babcock replies by denying the similarity, saying that Ruskinccconcludes that the case he examines is one of sale and purchase." Let us see. Ruskin is examining a story told by Bastiat in illustration and defence of usury. After print ing Bastiat's version of it, he abridges it thus, stripping away all mystifying clauses: INDIVID.UAL LIBERTY 91 ttJames makes a plane, lends it to William on 1st of Janu ary for a y~ar.William gives him a plank for the loan of it, wears.it out, and makes another. for James, which he gives him· .on•. 3ISt Dece,mber.· On 1St January he again. borrqws t•..h.••••.•..•.e..•.•.....•.....n••••e....•w.•.•.•o..••n.e,." .an.•.•~d••••.•th••e.,•• a.r,.ra.n...g.e.m.,ent is r•. e•• p .• e.at.e••..d...•.C.O.n••..ti.nu.o.u.·.. 81.

Y . _.The position of •illi_am,,therefore, is that he makes a plane every 3 1St of De ember; lends it to. James till the next day~ and pays James a lank annually lor the privilege of lending It.<tohimotl th~t evening." Substitute in the foregoing Hplough" for ((plane," and uloaf" or.uslice" for Hplank," and the·. story differs in .no essential point from Mr. Babcock's.· .How monstrously' unjust the transaction. is can be plainly seen. Ruskin next shows ,hoW' this unjust transaction may be changed into a just 'one: ((If James did not lend the. plane to William, he could only get his gain' of, a.' plank by working with .it himself and wear ingitouthimself. Wh~nhe had worn it out at the end of the year, he would, therefore, h~ve to make another for himself.. .William, .working with it instead, .gets the advan tage .instead, ·..which he. must, therefore, •pay James his plank for; and return toJames what James would, if he had not lent his. plane, then have had-not anew plane, but the worn-out One. Jarnesmust make a. new-oile £orhimself, as he would havehacl to do if no William had existed; .and if .William likes to borrow it again for another plank, all is fair. That is to say, clearing the. story of it~. nonsense,.that James makes a plane aIlnuaIlyand sells it to William forits proper price, which, in kind, i$ a new plank/' ltis this tatter transaction,· wholly different from theJormer> that .Ruskin pronounces a «sale," having «nothing whatever to .dowi th principal or with interest." And yet, according to Mr. Babcock, «the .. case he examines [Bastiat's, of course] isoneo£. sale and purchase."

It is an•• error. common with the economists to .assume that all/increase of capital decreases the rate of interest and that nothing else can materially de~rease it. .The. facts are just the contrary .• The rate of interest may, and often does, de crease when the ..amount of capital has not increased; the amount of capital may. increase without decreasing the 'ra te ofinterest, which may in fact increase at the same time; and 92 IND I VIDU AL LIBERTY so far from the universalization of wealth being the sole means of abolishing interest, the abolition of interest is the sine qua non of the universalization of wealth. Suppose, for instance, that the banking business of a nation is conducted by a system of banks chartered and regulated by the government, these banks issuing paper money ba~ed on specie, dollar for dollar. If now a certain number of these banks, by combining to buy up the national legislature, should secure the exclusive privilege of issuing two paper 'dollars for each specie dollar in their vaults, could they not afford to, and would they not in fact, materially reduce their rate of dis count? Would not the competing banks be forced to reduce their rate in consequence? And would not this reduction lower the rate of interest throughout the nation? Undoubt edly; and yet the amount of capital in the country remains the same as before.

Suppose, further, that during the following year, in conse' quence of the stimulus given to business and production by this decrease in the rate of interest and also because of unusually favorable natural conditions, a great increase of wealth occurs. If then the banks of the nation, holding from the governrnent a monopoly of the power to issue money, should combine to contract the volume of the currency, could they not, and would they not, raise the rate of interest there by? Undoubtedly; and yet the amount of capital in the country is greater than it ever was before. But suppose, on the other hand, that all these banks, chartered and regulated by the government and issuing money dollar for dollar, had finally been allowed to issue paper be yond their capital based on the credit and guaranteed capital of their customers; that their circulation, thus doubly se cured, had become so popular that people preferred to pay their debts in coin instead of bank-notes, thus, causing coin to flow into the vaults of the banks and add to their reserve; that this additon had enabled them to add further to their circulation, until, by a continuation of the process, it at last ainounted to eight times their original capital; that by levy ing a high rate of interest on this they had bled the people nigh unto death; that then the government had stepped in and said to the banks: cC·When you began, you received an annual interest of six per cent. on your capital; you now receive INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY' 93 nearly that rate on a circulation eight times your capital based<l'eally on the people'scredit;.therefore atone-eighth ,0£ the original rate' your annual pr9fit w~uld be as great. as £otm~r1y;· henceforth .•your rate ofl.discount must· not exceed thl'ee-fourthsof one percent)' Had all this happened (and with .the. exception of the Jastcondition of the •..hypothesis si11lilarcases have frequently happened), what would. have been the result? The· reduction of the rate of discount to the b~nk'g·••service, ,-nd.·the results therefrom ,-s'!lbove de..

$crihed, are precisely what would happeni£ the whole business of banking .shoulq be' thrown' open to free competition. Another' error is the assumption •that .ttin the last analysis the .. possessor,of capital 'has acquired it by a willingness' to work harder than his fellows and to sacrifice his love.' of spending all h~ produces that he may have the ,aid of capital to increase his power of production.": This is one of. the most devilish of the many infernal lies .for which the economists have •to answer. It is indeed true that the possessorof capital may, in rare cases, have acquired it by the method stated, though even then he could· not be excused .fol;' .making the capital so acquired a leech upon his fellow-men. But ninety-nine times in a hundred the' modern possessor of. any large amount· of capital. has acquired it, not Uby a willingness.to work harde.r than his fellows," but by a shrewdness in getting possessionof a m.onopoly which makes it needless for him. to do any 'real work at all; not by a willingness ttto sacrifice his love of spel1dingall he ·produces," .but by a cleverness in prQ curing from the governrn.enta privilege by which he is able to spend in wanton, luxury half of what a large number of other· me.nproduce. The chief. privilege to which we refer ,is that of selling the people's credit for a price.

Again, it. is an error to suppose that .• to confine the term money to· coin and to call all other ,money cU1rrencywouid simplify matters, ,when in realityjt is the insistence upon this false distinction.· that is the prevailing cause' of mystifi cation. If the idea of the royalty of gold and. silver could be once knocked •. out of the people's .heads" and they could once~nderstand that no, particular kind of· merchandise is created'by nature .formQnetary purposes, they would settle this question in a trice. Some personsseem to think that Josiah Warren..based··his notes on corn. Nothing of the kind. War94 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y ren simply took corn as his standard, but made labor and all its products his basis. His labor notes were rarely redeemed in corn. If he had made corn his exclusive basis, there would be no distinction in principle between him and the specie men. Perhaps the central point in his monetary theory was his denial of the idea that any. one product of labor can properly be made the only basis of money. A charge that this system, which recognized cost as the only ground of price, even contemplated a promise to pay anything tcfor value received," he would deem the climax of insult to his memory.

It is a mistake, too, to think that land is not a good basis for currency. True, unimproved vacant land, not having properly a market value, cannot properly give value to any thing that represents it; but permanent improvements on land, which should have a market value and carry with them a title to possession, are an excellent basis for currency. It is not the raw material of any product that fits it for a basis, but the labor that has been expended in shaping the material. A~ for the immovability of land unfitting it for a basis, it has just the opposite effect. We should not be misled by the idea that currency can be redeemed only in that on which it is based. FREE MONEY FIRST J. M. M'GREGOR, a writer for the Detroit Labor Leaf thinks -free land the chief desideratum. And yet he acknowledges that the wage-worker can't go from any of our manufactur ing centres to the western lands, because ((such a move would involve a cash outlay of a thousand dollars, which he has not got, nor can he get it." It would seem, then, that free land, though greatly to be desired, is not as sorely needed here and now as free capital. And this same need of capital would be equally embarrassing if the eastern lands were free, for still more capital would be required to stock and work a farm than the wage-worker can command. Under our present money system he could not even get capital by putting up his farm as collateral, unless he would agree to pay a rate of in terest that would eat him up in a few years. Therefore, free land is of little value to labor without free capital, while free capital would be of inestimable benefit to labor· even if land should not be freed for some time to come. For with it labor LIBERTY 95 could go into other industries C on the spot and achieveitsinde pendence. .Not. free. land, .then, but. free .money.is .the chief deisiderat\tm. It is·in the perception of this iprime .importance of the money question that the greenbackers, despite their ut..

terlyerroneous solution of it, show their marked superiority to the State Socialists and the .land nationalizationists. The .. craze.to get people upon the. land·is one of the lnsan.. it~esthat has.• dominated. social.reformers ever· since social re formwasnrst thought of. It. is a.great mistake..•0£ agricul ture it is as true as of~very. other industry that there should 1:>eas few people<engageciinit aspossible,-that is" just enough to supply the .world with all the agricultural products which it •wants. ••The fewer farmers there.··are, •after •• this point. of necessary supply is reached, the more useful people there are to engage ill other industries which have not yet reached this point, and to devise and .. work at new industries hitherto un thought of. It is altogether likely that we have too many farmers now. It is not best that anymore of us should be c011lefarmers, even if every homestead could be made an J\.J:cadia. The plough is very well in its way, and Arcadia.was very well in its clay... But the way of the plough is not as.wiqe as the world,>and the world has outgrown the day of Arcadia.

Human life henceforth is to be, not a sil11ple, but a complex: thing. The wants· and aspirations of •mankind ate daily mul tiplying. .. They can be satisfied only bY.ithe .diversification· of industry, which is the method of progress and the record of .civilization. This is one •.of..·the.great .. truths .• which. Lysander Spooner has so.•.. long been>shouting into. unwilling. ears... But the further diversification of industry in such away as to bene fit, noJonger the few and the idle, .but the many and the industrious, depends upon· the control .of capital by .labor. ~nd this, asProudhon, .. Warren,. Greene, and .Spooner have shown, can be secured only bya free money system. In anSwer.to .my article,· CtFree Money First/" ·in which was discussed.the.comparative.importance of. the money. and land questions, ]. M. M'Gregor, of the Detroit Labor Leaf, says: ttLgrant free money first. I firmly believe free money willcome.first, too, though ..• my ·.critic .and myseIfmay. be wigelyatvariance inregardi to what. would. constitute free money," ·I.mean.by free moneythe.utter.absenceo£ restric96 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY tion upon the issue of all money not fraudulent. If Mr.

M'Gregor believes in this, I am heartily glad. I should like to be half as sure as he is that it really is coming first. From the present temper of the people it looks to me as if nothing free would come first. They seem to be bent on trying every form of compulsion. In this current Mr. M'Gregor is far to the fore with his scheme of land taxation on the Henry George plan, and although he may believe free money will be first in time, he clearly does not consider it first in im portance. This last-mentioned priority he awards to land reform, and it was his position in that regard that my article was written to dispute. The issue between us, thus confined, hangs upon the truth or falsity of Mr. M'Gregor's statement that CCto-day landlord ism, through rent and· speculation, supports more idlers than any other system of profit-robbing known to our great com monwealth." I take it that Mr. M'Gregor, by ccrent ," means ground-rent exclusively, and, by the phrase ((supports more idlers," means takes more from labor; otherwise, his state ment has no pertinence to his position. For all rent except ground-rent would be almost entirely and directly abolished by free money, and the evil of rent to labor depends, not so much on the number of idlers it supports, as on the aggregate amount a,nd quality of support it gives them, whether they be many or few in numbe'r. Mr. M'Gregor's statement, then, amounts to this:· that ground-rent takes more from labor than any other form pf usury. It needs no statistics to disprove 1:his. The principal forms of usury are interest on money loaned or invested, profits made in buying and selling, rent of buildings of all sorts, and ground-rent. A moment's reflection will show anyone that the amount of loaned or invested capi tal bearing interest in this country to-day far exceeds in value the amount of land yielding rent. The item of interest alone is a much more serious burden on the people than that of ground-rent. Much less, theil, does ground-rent equal in 1:erest plus profit plus rent of buildings. But to make Mr.

M'Gregor's argument really valid it must exceed all these combined. For a true money reform, I repeat, would abolish almost entirely and directly everyone of these forms of usury except ground-rent, while a true land r~form would directly abolish only ground-rent. Therefore, unless labor /INDIVIDUAL LlnERTY 97 pays more in ground-rent than in interest, profit, and rent of buildings combined, the money question is' of ·more· im~ porta-nee tpan the land· question. There are countries where this is the case, but the United States is not one of them. It should also be borne in mind that free money, ind~$tr~y ingthepower to ac€umulate large fortunes in the ordinary industries of life, will putaverypower£ul check upon the scramble·forcorner-lots'and other advantageous positions, and thereby have a cons~derable inf1u~nc~ul'oitgrou1'ld-rent itself. ttrI0w,can .capital he free," asks Mr., M'Gregor, tCwhen·it cannot get rid of rent?" It cannot be entirely free till iteaD.

get rid of rent; but it willbein:6.nitely fteer if it ge'ts rider interest, profit, and rent of buildings and still keeps ground rent, than if. it gets rid of ground-rent and keeps •the other forl11sof usury. Give us free money, the nrst great step to Anarchy, and we'll attend to ground-rent, afterwards. FREE' BANKING In 1889, Mr. Hugo Bilgram firstpubIished his Hln_ voluntary Idleness," 'which Mr. Tucker ,characterized as the most important book -of the generation. ' But" while admtringthe author's examination of the relation be tween unemployment and .interest on money, and while agreeing with his conclusion that Han expansion of the volutrie of money, by extending. the issue of credit llloney, will •••'prevent 'business stagnation and involuntary 'idle ness," the editor of Liberty. had, one substantial disagree fi1ent with Mr. Bilgram:t.which he stated ,thus: WHEN, Mr., Bilgram' proposes that ,the government, shall carryon .(and .presumably monopolize, though. ,this ~s. not clearly ,stated) the business of issuing.,money, ,it is hardly necessar.y to say that' Liberty cannot follow hirth It goes with him ih his economy, but not. in his politics. There are at (least,three valid reasons" and doubtless others also, why the. government should do nothing of the kind.

98 INDIVIDU AL LIBERTY First the government is a tyrant living by theft, and therefore has no business to engage in any business. Second, the government has none of the characteristics of a successful business man, being wasteful, careless, clumsy, and short-sighted in the extrem~. Third, the government is· thoroughly irresponsible, having it in its power to effectively repudiate its obligations at any time. With these qualifications Liberty gives Mr. Bilgram's book enthusiastic welcome. Its high price will debar many from reading it; but money cannot be expended more wisely than in learning the truth about money. Mr. Bilgram then writes to Liberty in defense of his contention that State banking is preferable to mutual banking on the ground that ttmutual banking cannot deprive capital of its power to bring unearned returns to its owner." Mr. Tucker proceeds to demolish that position: MR. BILGRAM, if I understand him, prefers government banking to mutual banking, because with the former the rate of discount would simply cover risk, all banking expenses being paid out of the public treasury, while with the latter the rate of· discount would cover both risk and banking expenses, which in his opinion·.would place the burden of banking ex penses upon the borrow~rs instead of upon the people. The answer to this is simple and decisive: the burden of discount, no matter what elements, many or few, may constitute it, falls ultimately, under any system, not on the borrowers, but on the people. Broadly speaking, all the interest paid is paid by the people. Under mutual banking the expenses of the banks would, it is true, be paid directly by the borrowers, but the latter would recover this from the people in the prices placed upon their products. And it seems to me much more scientific that the people should thus pay these expenses through the borrowers in the regular channels of exchange than that they should follow the communistic method of pay ing them through the public treasury.

INDIVIUUAL LIBERTY 99 Mr. Bilgram's statement. that money-lenders •who, besides "heing compensated for risk, .are"compensated ,.for' their labor asbankers •••and .for their incidental expenses,~~thereby obtain an income from themereJoanof money"is incomprehensible to me. He<might just as well say that under government banking the officials who should receive salaries"from the treasury for, carrying, on,the business.would thereby obtain an income.£rom the mere loan of money. Under a free system the hanker is as simply and truly paid only the normal wage of his labor as is the' official under a government system.. But, since Mr. Bilgramdoes not ·propose to place any re striction upon private banking, Jhave no quarrel with him. He is welcome to 'his opinion. that private banking could not compete with the governmental institution. I stoutly main tain .the contrary,.' and the '•• very existence of. the. finandal prohibitions is thehest,' evidence that 1'3tll right. That' which can succeed by intrinsic merit never seeks a legal bolster.

Mr. Bilgram remained .unconvinced that he was wrong in every respect, and still maintained that the cost of making the tokens should he defrayed hythe. government. To which Mr. Tucker replied that there areatle,ast two answers: TIiE fu-stisthat tliatJac~dnthe tate of interest which represents the cost of making tokens is so insignificant (prob ably Jess than one-tenth of one per cent., guessing at it) that the. people could wen afford (if there were no alternative )to Iet,a few individualsprpfit to that extent rather than suffer the enormous evils that., result, .from transferring enterprise from' private·,to government controL, I am .not so enamored of absolute equality that I would sacrifice both hands rather than one finger. The second answer is that no ,private money-lenders could, under a free system, reap "even the small,.profit referred to. Mr.•,Bilgram. speaks of' ~Cthose •who lend •money which they have acquired." •Acquired how? Any money which they have acquired must have. originated, with '. issuers.who paid, tJ.,e cpsto£making>thetokens, and every time it, has change~ '·handsthehurden .of .this 'cost has. been transferred with it.

100 ·INDIVIDUAL LIBER TY Is it likely that men who acquire money by paying this cost will lend it to others without exacting this cost? If they should, they would be working for others for nothing,-a very different thing from ccreceiving pay for work they had not performed." No man can lend money unless he either issues it himself and pays the cost of making the tokens, or else buys or borrows it from others to whom he must pay that cost. Along these same lines Mr. J. K. Ingalls contributed to Liberty an article, and incidentally asked the editor some questions; among others, whether, if mutual money is to be made redeemable in gold or silver, it involves the principle of a legal tender, or of a tender of CCcommon consent." Mr. Tucker answers: YES, it does involve one of these, but between the two there is all the difference that there is between force and freedom" authority and liberty. And where the tender is one of ((common consent," those who do not like it are at liberty to consent in common to use any other and better one that they can devise.

It is difficult for me to see any fraud in promising to pay a certain thing in a certain time, or on demand, and keep ing the promise. That is what we do when we issue redeem able money and afterwards redeem it. The fraud in regard to money consists not in this, but in limiting 'by law the security for these promises to pay to a special kind of property, limited in quantity and easily monopolizable. It is doubtful if there is anything more variable in its purchasing power than labor. The causes of this are partly natural, such as the changing conditions of production, and partly and principally artificial, such as the legal monopolies that impart fictitious values. But'labor expended in certain directions is unquestionably more constant in its average re sults than when expended in other directions. Hence the ad vantage of using the commodities resulting from the former for the redemption of currency whenever redemption shall be demanded. Whether gold and silver are among these INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 101: commodities ~sa question, not of principle, but of statistics.

As a matter of fact, the holders of good redeemable money seldom as~ for any other-redemption than its acceptance in the. market and its final cancellation by the>i~uer's restoration of •. the .securities on which it· was issued. But ill case any other redemption is. desired, .it .is necessary to adopt for .the purpose some· commodity easily transferable •. and most nearly invariable in value. Does .Mr.. Ingalls mean that all. xnoney must 1>e a1>9UsheJ~ I· can see no other inference from. his position. For there are only two kinds ofmoney,-commodity money and credit money. The former he . certainly does not believe in,. the latter he thinks fra~dulent and unsafe. Are we, then, to stop exchanging the products oiour labor? It is clearly the right of everyman. to •.• gamble it. .h~ chooses to, and he has as good a right to make his bets on the rise and fall of grain l'rices .as· on anything else; only he must not gamble with loaded dice, or be allowed special privileges whereby he can control the price of grain. Hence, in a free and •• open .market,. these transactions wher,e neither equiva: lent is transferred ;fre legitimate enough. But they are un wise, because, apart from the winning orJosing of the bet, there is .no advantage to.begained. from them. Transactions, on .the other hand,iJ:i which only One equivalent is immedi ately~ransferred are.£requentlyof the greatest advantage, as they enable men to getl'0ssession of tools which they imme diatelyneed, but cannot'immediately pay for. Of course the promise to pay is liable to be more or less valuable at ma turity than when issued, but so is the property .originally transferred. Theborro,wer is no mo~e. exempt than the lender ·from the variatiol}s.in .value. An1 the .interests of .the holderot property who nelther borrows qor lends are also Just as Il1uchaffectedbythem.There is an ~lement of· chance in aHproperty. relations. So far as this. is 1uetomonopoly and privilege, we must do our best to aboli~h it;. so far as it is natural and inevitable, we must get alon~with it as· best we can,ibutnot be frighte1.1ed by it into discarding credit .and trioney,the •most potent •instruments .of~ssociation and civi.w · lization. , Liberty.is published •not so. much to· th9roughlY.inform its reacIers.regardingthe ideas which· it advocates as to interest 102. INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY them to seek this thorough information through other chan nels. For instance, in regard to free money, there is a book HMutual Banking," by William B. Greene-which sets forth the evils of money monopoly and the blessings of gratuitous credit in a perfectly plain and convincing way to all who will take the pains to study and understand it. Liberty. can only state baldly the principles which Greene advocates and hint at some of their results. Whomsoever such statements and hints serve to interest can and will secure the book of me for a 'small sum. Substantially the same views, presented in different ways, are to be found in the financial writings of Lysander Spooner, Stephen Pearl Andrews, Josiah Warren, and, above all, P. J. Proudhon, whose untranslated works contain untold treasures, which I hope· some day to put within the reach of English readers.

THE ABOLITION OF INTEREST To-day, a weekly newspaper published in ~oston in 1890, printed an editorial on the subject of interest which contained so·many vulnerable points that the edi tor of Liberty was moved to criticize it. After point ing out the errors and fallacies in the editorial, he pro ceeded: THE modern opponents of interest are perfectly willing to consider facts tending to refute their position, but no facts can have such a tendency unless they belong to one of two classes: first, facts showing that interest has generally (not sporadically) ex~sted in a community in whose economy money was as important a factor as it is with us to-day and in whose laws there was no restriction upon its issue;, or, second, facts showing that interest is sustained by causes that would still be effectively, invincibly operative after the aboli tion of the banking monopoly. I do not find any such facts among those cited by Ta-day. The array is formidable in appearance only. Possession of encyclopxdic knowledge is a virtue which Spencer sometime~ exaggerates into a vice, and IN D I VID U AL LIBE RT Y 10) a. vice' which some of, his •disciples too seldom reduce to the proportions ofa virtue.

rro,the,economic •truism •I will give.a, little 'more 'attention~ its irrelevancy,'. being less apparent. Here it. is: uThe, exist ence of interest depends,\of course,primarily upon thee:x;ist enceo£ private property.". I call this a truism,. though the worduprimarily" introduces an element of error. If weare tojnquire •upon, what interest primarily.. depends, we 'shall. ~ta~t upon,an endlessjourney intQ the realm of metaphysics. But without entering that realm we certainly call go ,farther back iJ;l.theseries than private property and nndthatinterest depends "still more.<remotely upon .'. the existence, of human beings and even of theuniV'erse itself. However, inte!'"est undoubtedly depends upon private property, and, if this fact had any significance, ] sh()uldnot. stop 'to trifle over •the word ctprimarily.".> :But it.has' no ,sigJ;lifica~ce. It only seems to, haV'e significance b~'caQseit ca~ries,or seems,to be.supposed to carry, the implication that, if private •. property' is· a neces sary c~ondition of interest, .interest isa necessary result. of private ·prQperty.• ,The inference, of course, is wholly unwar ralltedbyJogic, but that it is intendedappear~ from ar.emark almost immediately following:ttE~pectations have been en 'tertainedthat it '. [interest] •will eventually become zero; 1)ut this stage. will •• prob~bly, be reached only when 'econorme products. become common free propefty of the human· race."

The word uprobably" .• leaves the. writer "to be' sure, 'a '. small logic.al loophole of escape, but .it is _not expected that the re;tderwill .notice it,the', emphasis.'. being all in the other di~ection.The reader is expected to look upon interest asa n.ec~ssary result of. private property simply because without private property there ,could, be no. interest. • Now, my hat sometimes.hangs upon a .hook, and, if there were no book, there could be no hanging hat; but it by no means follows that, because there isa hook there must be. a hanging hat. Therefore, if 1 wanted to abolish hanging hats, itwouldibe idle, irrelevant, and' illogical to declare. that. I must. nrst , abqlishhooks., Likewiseit is idle, irrelevant, and illogical to de~lare that before interest, can be abolished.private property must be. abolished~ .,.Take another illustration~ If there were tl0>yvinter, water-pipes would never freeze up,. but it is not 41.~cessary ,to abolish winter to. prevent this. freezing••'.' HU1l1a~ 104 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY device has succeeded in preventing it as a general thing. Simi larly, without private property there would be no borrowing of capital and therefore no interest; but it is claimed that, without abolishing private property, a human device-namely, money and banking-will, if not restricted, prevent the necessity of borrowing capi~al as a general thing, and there fore virtually abolish interest; though interest might still be paid in extraordinary cases, just as water-pipes still freeze up under extraordinary conditions. Is this claim true? That is the only question.

This claim is met in the single relevant sixteenth of To day's· article. But it is met sim,ply by denial, which is not disproof. I give the writer's words: uThe most popular fallacy upon the subject now is that the rate of interest can be lowered by increasing the amount of currency. What men really wish to borrow usually is capital,-agencies of production,-and money is only a means for the transfer of these. The amount· of currency can have no effect upon the abundance of capital, and even an increase in the abundance of capital does not always lower the rate of interest; this is partly determined by the value of capital in use." This paragraph, though introduced with a rather nonchalant air, seems to have been the objective point of the entire article. All the rest was apparently written to furnish an occasion for voicing the excessively silly notion that ccthe amount of cur rency can have no effect upon· the abundance of capital." As I have already said, to show how silly it is, it is only necessary to slightly change the wording of the phrase. Let it be stated thus: ccThe abolition of currency can have no effect upon the abundance of capital." Of 'course, if the former statement is true, the latter follows. But the latter is manifestly absurd, and hence the former is false. To affirm it is to affirm that currency does not facilitate the distribution of wealth; for if it does, then it increases the effective demand for wealth, and hence the production of wealth, and hence the abundance of capital. It is true that tcah increase in the abundance of capital does not always lower the rate of interest." An extra horse attached to a heavy load does not always move the load. If the load is heavy enough, two extra horses will be r~quired to move it. But it .is 'always the tendency of INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 105 the first extra horse.to move it, .whether he.succeedsor not.

In the same, way, increase. of ,capit'al always tends to .lower interest up to· the time .when in;terest disappears entirely• But .though increased·.capital .• lowers·.·interest and increased curre;ncy•increases•capital, increased cu~rencyalso acts·dirtctly in.• lowering . interest before it has increased.the amount of capital. It is here that .theeditorQfTo-day seems to .show unlamiliarity with. !heposition •. of.tfie •. opponents of •.• interest. It is true that what men really wi$h. t~get is capital, __the agencies of pr.oductiQn.. And it is· pr~c:isely because money isccame~ns. for the transfer of these" that the ability to issue mon~y secured by their own property would make it' unneees saryfor them to borrow these agencies by enabling them to buy .. tIlem. This .. raises .a ..question ·which I. haveask,ed ·hun~ dreds of times of defenders ofinterestandwhichhasinvari ahlyproveda ((poser0" . I.wilL nOw put it to. the editor of '(.o-day, A is a farmer. owning .a farm.. He. mortgages his fa;rm to a bank f.or $1,000, giving •. the bank a tllortgagenote for. that sum and receiving in e;x:ch~nge the. bank's .notes f()r the satnesum,which are.secured.·by·•• the mortgage .•' .With the·bank ..notes.A ·buys farming tools ofB. The next day·B uses the. notes to buy of Q themate~alsused inthemanufac tl.lre.of tools. The day after,Cin .. ,turn pays them to:D in exchange for something that he needs.. At the end ofayear, after a constant ·succe$sionofexchallges, the notes are in. the hands of .Z, a dealer in farm produce. He pays' them to A,.

who gives in return $1,000 worth of·.• farm products which he has raised during. the year. Then' A carries the notes to the ba.nk, receivesjnexchal1ge for· them his mortgage note, and the bank cancels the mortgage. Now, in •this ~hole •circle of transactions, has.· t1).ere been any ·lellding of capital? If. so, who was,the lender?. If not, who is entitled to any interest? I ,call upon the editor of To-day. to answer this question. It is needless to assure him that it is vital. To-aay'srejoinder to my criticism of its article on interest is chiefly remarkable as an exhibition of dust-throwing.. In the art .of kicking up a .dust the '. editor· is .an expert.· ···When~ ever•. he.. is asked an elllbarrassing question, he begins to .show his. skill il1 •• this direction•.•·.He reminclsone .of the clown .at the . circus 'when /ttstumped" by-the.· ring-master to. turn a 106 INDIVIDUAL LIBER TY double somersault over the .elephant's back. He prances and dances, jabbers and gyrates, quotes Latin forwards and Greek backwards, declaims in the style of Dr. Johnson to the fish wife, sings· algebraical formul~ to the music of the band, makes faces, makes puns, and makes an excellent fool of him self; and when at the end of all this enormous activity he slyly slips between the elephant's legs instead of leaping over his back, the hilarious crowd, if it does not forget his failure to perform the prescribed feat, at least good-humoredly for gives it. But I am not so good-natured. I admit that, as a clown, I find the editor interesting, but his performance, ap propriate enough in a Barnum circus ring, is out of place in the economic area. So I propose to ignore his three pages of antics and note only his ten-line slip between the elephant's legs, or, laying metaphor aside, his evasion of my question.

I had challenged him to point out any lending of capital in a typical banking transaction which I had described. He re sponds by asking me to define capital. This is the slip, the evasion, the postponement of the difficulty. He knows that~ if he can draw me off into a discussion of the nature of capital, there will be an admirable opportunity for more clownishness, since there is no point in political economy that lends itself more completely to the sophist's art .. than this. But I am not to be turned aside. I stick to my question. In regard to the notion of capital the editor of To-day will find me, so far as the immediate question at issue is connected with it, the most pliable man in the world. I will take the definition, if he likes, that was given in the previous article in To-day. There it was said that money was one thing and capital an other; that capital consists of the agencies of production, while money is only a means for the transfer of these; that what men really want is not money, but capital; that it is for the use of capital that interest is paid; and that this interest, this price for the use of capital, lowers, generally speaking, as capital becomes plentier, and probably cannot disappear un less abundance of capital shall reach the extreme of common property. Now I have shown (at least I shall so claim until my question is answered) that in the most ordinary form of ~transaction involving interest-namely, the discounting of notes-there is absolutely no lending of capital in the sense in which capital was used in To-day's first article, and the INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY, 107 collsequence, o£course, is that that defence of interest which regards it as payment for the use of capitaLstraigbtway falls to the ground. But iithe editor of To-day does not liketh.e vie:wof.capitalthat •. was given.in the. article criticised, he m.ay ta}{e some other; I am perfectly willing•. HCtnay make a defi~ nition of his own. , Whatever-it may be, I, for the tirneb~i1'lg andfor the purposes of this argument,shall s:ay ttAmen" toit"

And after that I shall again press the question ,whether, in the transaction,which1 described,there was any lending of any thing 'Whatever..And if he shall then answer, as .a. paragraph in his··latest.article indicates, ttYes, the bank lent its notes.to the ,£armer/' I, shall show conclusively that the· bank did _not~ing '. of •• the .. ki9-d. If •I •suc~essfullymaintain this· conten tion, th.enit will be demonstrated·.that the interest paid in. the transaction specified. was. not .paid for the •. use .of .anything whatever, but 'was a tax levied by monopoly and nothing else. Meantime itiscomforting to reflect that my Jabor has opt be¢nentirely .in. vain. As •a consequence of.' my> criticism of To-day'sarticle on1llterest, the editor has disowned it (though it .appeared unsigned and in editorial type) ,charac terjzed it, as utrivial" (heaven .knows it had the.,air ofgrav· ity!), and •squarely contradicted its chief doctrinal.ass,ertion"

TtIis assertion was that' ttthe amount' of currency can. have .no effect upon the-abundance. of capital." ,.It· is contradicted in these terms: ttEyidently money is a I necessary elementin the e:x:isti1}gindustrial. plexus, a;nd increa~e. of capital is depelldent upon the supply of a sufficient amoupt of mopey." After this Lhave hopes. UAn E.nquirer" wrote to the editor of Liberty confess ing h.erincapaeity to understand why he advocated the abolition of rent. and interest. She cited the C.ase,·of a 'cook loaning l1er savings.to a young man. who needed some ready cash, and she wanted to know what was wrong with this. ·Mr. Tucker told her: My enquiring friend. is •• by no means. stupid. Her argument: is 'Well and clearly stated and is indicative of the hapito£ th.(i)ught. .Neitherisshe ignorant or superficial in the.sense 108 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y in which those terms are usually employed for the general characterization of personality. She has simply failed to acquaint herself with the position of the Anarchistic oppon ents of interest, the soundness of which her native power of penetration will enable her to see when once she has become fainiliar with it.

Wherein consists her misapprehension? In this,-that she supposes the Anarchists to condemn the contract between the horrower and the lender, per se; whereas the truth is that they condemn, not the contract, but the conditions of compulsory restriction and limitation under which such contract is now necessarily made if made at all, and in the absence of which it would be prevented, not by law or by invasion of any kind, but by simple competition, from embodying the element of interest oncapitaI. Take the case which she cites. No Anarchist disputes that it is perfectly legitimate for the young man in question to borrow either of the cook or of the bank upon such terms as may be agreed upon in a free market. The complaint of Anarchism is that the market is not free, and that the trans actions effected therein are necessarily tainted with injustice. At present, if the young man borrows, whether of the cook or of the 9ank, the terms of contract are dictated to his dis advantage, by means of a legal privilege or Inonopoly enjoyed by the bank. N either cook nor bank will lend to the young man unless he can give a note the redemption of which is considered sure and is generally made sure by a lien upon actual property. Upon being thus secured, the lender sup plies the borrower with other notes, intrinsically no stronger, but in the redemption of which not only the lender and borrower but the entire community have reason to have confi dence. That is to say, the lender,. either by issuing his own universally known notes or by furnishing equally well known notes previously issued by others, virtually indorses the bor rower's note, or, in still other words, insures his credit. For this service what does he charge? A price as low as that for which anyone else is willing and able to perform the same service. Now, the AnarchitSts assert that there are large numbers of people who are willing, either individually or by forming themselves into banking associations, to perform this service at something ,less than one per cent., and that the INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 109 only reason why •they •are not able to'do so is 'that they are preven.ted by law. The grounds ,upon ,. which they base this assertion are, first, the ·fact. that prices in ··a.free ,market tend toward cost of production .and. performance, which, in the matter of .insurance of credit, ,. is shown by banking statistics to·, be about one-half of one per, cent., .and, ·.·second,··the existence of Federal laws imposing a tax of ten per cent. on all banks of issue not complying with the provisions of the nat~pnal banking act, and ot, State la.-ws tna~~ng it ,a cr~tn~to circulate as currency. other ~notes ,than those. ,specifically authorized by statute. ., To this.. it is no ,answer. to say that all l?ersonsare equally. free to comply with the provisions ofthe national banking act;£or these provisions by their,very nature, limiting the basisof:currency to government honds~ limit the volume of the curr~ncy, and in any business,a limi tation., which"reduces. the .ou~put is ••as, truly a .restriction.··of' competition as. a limitation specifyintgthat only certain per sons shall engage· in the business. Now, ,if the, above facts an.d the assertions •based on ithem are, correct, it is obvious that~ but for these, the price of insuring credit would faUto less..than one per. cent., this' small ,percentage paying.' not dividends to stockholders, but the salaries of ,bankingofIi cials, 'providing for incidental expenses, and making good any deficiencies from ,ba4 debts. Thus is justified the An archistic' contention thrtinterest. upon capital is dependent ,upon. the restrictions strrou~ding the con~ra~t betweenbor rower 'and. lender,;, for' surely CCAn ,Enquirer's" young man would not be willing to,'paythe .cook six per cent. for money w;henhe could borrow. of, a b~nk for· one per cent.,. or able to exact ten per 'cent. for his house from a homeless man when the latter could' hire money ,at one percent. with which ., to
buy' or build a house. If there is a:flaw in the :Anarchistic argument, I wait for UAnEnquirer" to point it O\1t. For her sake 1 have told an old story to the readers of Liberty; but then, •• I expect to nave to ten it many times again. . ' Mr.. ]. K. Ingalls, in a Jetter to the editor of Liberty arguing that interest is un~scapable, asserted that there, is aneconomicinterestasw¢Il as economic rent, and that 1:10 INDIVID'UAL LIBE.RTY it differs from that which is captured by the stronger and more cunning from 'the weaker and more stupid through the enforcement of barbarous (not economic) laws and customs; and he also asserted that interest is derived from the increase of any labor over its bare support. Mr. T~cker met the issue squarely: MR. INGALLS gives no clear definition or measure of the term Cteconomic interest." Economic rent is measured by the difference between the poorest land in use and the grades superior thereto. But what measures economic interest? Is it the difference between the product of labor absolutely destitute of capital, and that of labor possessing capital in varying degrees? But in that case economic interest is not entirely Hderived from the increase of any labor over its bare support," since the product of labor absolutely destitute of capital would be less than a starvation wage to a man living in the midst of our civilization. Or is it measured by the difference between the product of labor possessing the poorest ,capital in use, and that of labor possessing better capital?

Which at once gives rise to another question: what is the poorest capital in use, and how is it to be recognized as such? In the absence of a satisfactory answer to this question, Mr. Ingalls's economic interest must be looked upon as a de cidedly indeterminate economic factor~ All that his theory means, so far as I can grasp it, is that interest exists because people can do more with capital than without it, and that interest actually is, in fact, this surplus obtained by the employment of capital. Now, so defining interest, the Anarchists do not wish to abolish it. Such a wish would be absurd, for it would· be a wish to lessen the world's wealth. and productive power. To Anarchists the only consequence of this new definition is the necessity of :finding another term to represent that which they do wish to abolish,-namely, payment by borrower to lender for the use of capital. But, once this necessary term is found or devised, the old question recurs: will free and mutual banking make it possible to procure capital without paying for its use?

INDTVIDU A'L LIB.ERTY III To the determination of this' question three other questions l~adup,and I will. put them to Mr.•IngaUsstraightway. J:. If a>thousartd men engaged indifferent ·1inesof busi ness unite to forma bank of issue; and if this bank of issue unites with other similar banks .for clearing purposes; and if said bank lends its naturally well··known "circulating credit to its members.(or to others, for that matter) .against con ditional· titles to actual and. specific v.alues given by the boftOW~r~,-dothese ·lo1ns of the bank:s.credit. cost the bank anything .beyond the salaries of manager and assistants~ rent of building, expenditure for paper and printing, losses by depreciatiQnof securities, 'and sundry incidentals? 2.' Do 'not statisticians and economists agree that a dis count .afone-half of one percent. covers the expenses referred tQinthe preceding. questions? 3••If men were'. free'. to ·'unite in the. formation of· sucn han.ks of issue, •and subject to no penalty or tax whatsoever for so doil1g,would not competition between the banks thus for1l1ed"fQrce the' price' of the service ,rendered by them. down tocost, ........that is, one-half of one per cent.,--or to a figure closely•• approximating it?

Now, 1 insist, and I have a right. to insist, that Mr. Ingalls shall,answer these three fair and .pertinent questions directly, without . extraneous .• discussion, without •any minglingQ£ considerations or speculatiorts' not absolutely .essential. to. the . answers. ,For eitherthes.e direct answers will be what 1 think they must be, and then the case of the Anarchists (so .fa.r asnnance ,is concerned) is established; Qr else they will be something else,.and then, the. case o£the.Anarchists· falls. If, it falls, of course I. shall.'.'have nothing more to say, and the publication. of. Liberty,·will be discontinued; but,. if it is established,then I shall be ready to discuss with Mr. Ingalls those .. 'interesting. but at present non-essential questions'. of collection ..of debts, .enfdrcementof. contracts, the compara tive good and evil of discounting the future results of labor, etc., etc., etc.

;Sywayof caution, let me add that the Anarchists do not look •forward to a time. when there will be no sporadic. cases of payment ,for the use· of. capital,--such, .for instance, •.. as th~i example cited by Mr. Ing~lls where an inducement .is given to the endorser' ofanote. They simply. claim that 112 INDI·VIDUAL LIBERTY under freedom borrowing and lending will so generally take the shape of an exchange of credits at the mere cost of the exchange that interest-or, rather, what we used to call interest before M~. Ingalls appropriated the term to a different purpose-will disappear as an influential economic factor. Mr. Ingalls then offered his answers to the three ques tions propounded by the editor of Liberty, and Mr. Tuck~r dissected them as follows: To MY first question Mr. Ingalls answers that the bank of my hypothesis could issue its notes at a cost not exceeding its running expenses and incidental losses. So far, then, my claim is sustained. For he answers further that such a bank.

could not exist in the absence of a motive for its existence. It remains for me, ~hep, only to supply the motive. The task is easy. The thousand business men of my hypothesis would unite to form a bank of issue, and would connect this bank of issue with other similar banks for clearing purposes, because thereby they could establish a collective credit having circulat ing power, which each of them could obtain in exchange for his equally good but less reputable individual credit, hav ing to pay th~refor nothing but the cost of this exchange of credits. In other words, these business men would form such a bank as I describe· in order to borrow money at less than 'one per cent .. instead of paying, as they do now, from.£our to fift~en per cent. Is .the motive sufficient? To my second question Mr. Ingalls answers that the cost above referred· to would probably be met by a discount of one-half of one per cent. Sustained again. I have not to :discuss here why bank employees ushould be expected to work for bare support." It suffices for the argument to know that what these employees are now willing to accept for their services can be paid to them out· of funds provided. by a discount of one-half of one per cent. And this Mr. Ingalls :admits. When we have exhausted the present issue, then I will consider with him how 'many tears I can afford ·to .shed over the sad fate of those bank presidents for whom a dis count of .one-half of one per cent. provides salaries of only ten, fifteen, and twenty thousand dollars.

IN"DIVIDU AL LIBERTY II} to my third question Mr.. Ingalls answers that under free conditions competition would tend to reduce .discount to, its lowest term,-ordinarilysomething above ·.cost. rtake .• 'it that Mr. Ingalls means. by •this that' in banking--a business which under freedom is accompanied .by no •. physical condi,.. tions that place a naturallimituponcompetition---the force of competition would have a· tendency of the .same strength as that which it hasin other ,businesses.similarly •. free from phys~c~llinUtations,--in. othet words, .th~t the te'ndency· 'Would be strong enough to cause the price· to> hover. around the cost limit,n~wrising a little above it, now falling a little beloW' it, but averaging cost, or perhaps a shade more. If thisis.his meaning, then Tam sustained •again. 17he discussion now centres, .therefore, upon. the following question,· which.I put to Mr. Ingalls: Is the desire tohorrowmoney<at les~ th~nl one per c~nt., instead of at four percent. or more, a· sufficient consideration to induce businessmen to form suchbanltsas Thave described?

IfMt. Ingalls. answers'that it is not, he. must show ,why. it is not. If he answers that' it. is, then the propositionwhich~ according. to Mr. Ingalls,. has never been .delllonstrated, will have •• received '. its ·demonstration,-r,-the .proposition, namely~ that free and .mutual banking will make it •possible'to'pro cure capital without paying Jor its use (the discount being charged, not f~r. the •. use .of .capital, but, to. meet expenses in~dental to· tHe transfet of· c,apital)• . , With apologr toMi"; Ingalls for my persistence,I· must Eh:~~:;i~~:~:r~~:~t~~;J~:%:~~~~~~ t~...:.·•.•:~.tgl:S·~ffi.::~i:..~Si.a.•~r:.O·~~~:.~u.:tt~o~.te:::;~~~b.t.tt.=e:~:~eP:.:. lend at more han four per cent. is asuflicientmotiveto business ,men s lenders· to kaep them from embarking in mutual· hanki!1i··. ·Now I must ask for answers to the folIowingquestions: . . . (1) Does tebusiness man who has capital but lacks ca~~-that is, the business man who wishes toborrow-saerifice" by. e . gaging with •others '. in ,mutual banking, any.

114 IN D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y opportunity of lending (at four per cent. or any other rate)" which he enjoys before so engaging? (2) If so, what? (3) If not; if the business man in question, by embarking with. others in mutual banking, does not thereby damage himself as lender,-is not the desire to borrow at less than one per cent. a sufficient consideration to induce him to so embark? I respectfully insist on answers to these questions. Mr. Ingalls is a very able and sincere writer on economic· problems. He deservedly exercises an influence on the class of people to whom Liberty appeals. Repeatedly· during its publication he has come forward with a denial of the position that mutual banking will make it possible to borrow money without in terest. I have now determined to force him, once and for all, to make good ~his denial by proof, or else to retract it. Mr. Ingalls seems to imagine that the answers which he now gives to my last series of questions are as equivocal as his answer to my previous question. Not so. The terms in which he answered my previous question implied two opposite mo tives influencing at the same time a business man fulfilling a double capacity,-a borrower and lender,-and cancelling each other. As my question did not concern men, who, as indi....

viduals, were in the market as lenders, but only those who were in the market as borrowers,. this answer was equivocal. But the answers now given to .my last questions distinctly recognize the borrowing business ·man and the lending busi ness man as two individuals, and this recognition removes· all the equivocation; forthe desire of a lender to lend at a high rate cannot cancel the desire of a borrower to borrow at 3\ low rate, provided the borrower, by association with other borrow ers, can provide himself with a source from which to borrow at a low rate,-a condition not as paradoxical as it seems, since the fact of association creates a credit that before had no. ex istence. The present answers, then, being straightforward and satisfactory, let us review the admissions which I have secured. Mr. Ingalls has .admitted that business men desiring to borrow have an adequate motive for embarking in mutual banking; he has admitted that the loans of a mutual bank's credit LIBER. TY lIS' . would cost the. bank· nothing··but running ·expensesandinci"

dental.outlays.and.losses; he.hasadmitted that this cost would probably. be•. covered by:a. discount. of •••·one-half '.of ·one .. per cetlt.; and· he has admitted that,· CCin the absence·0£ State· Qr colle.ctivemeddling,cornpetition wolJ1dtendunquestionably to reduce discount to its lowest term, which would ordinarily be something above.. cost." .•. I· have interpreted this last ad mission.as meaning that in banking the force of competition -would have a •tendency of thesatne strengthasth:tt wh;ch.it 'hasin other businessessimilarly free from physical limitations, -ill •• other .. words, •that •. the tendency would .be strong enough to cause the price •to hover around the cost •limit, now rising a little above it,. now falling. a. little below it,. but averaging cost, or perhaps a shade more.. In neither of the two articles which· Mr. Ingalls has written. since this interpretation ap pe~red has he taken any exception to it. I am justified there fore in assuming that he admits this also.

Now, .this senesof •admissions •constitutes the entire case £ormutualbanking. Whether or not it was ever demon stratedbefore .that mutual banking would abolish the pay tnentofinterest for the use of borrowed money, I have now ~edMr. Ingalls to demonstrate this himself. Hisi del:larations shoW' that under freedom the rate of discount would faU to neadyone-lulf of one. percent •..This is equivalent to the abolition of the payment of interest, for in such a money mar.. ~ ket an individual case of.·interest payment would cut no fig ure economically, any more. than one~s occasional.pay111entof a ··quarter. to •an urchin· for delivering a letter .cuts a figure nOW that letter-postage has fallen to two cents. Mr.. Ingalls has formally allowed that •• mutuaL banking will. do all that it claims for itself, ,and he is. forever .debarred from repeating that denial or doubt of its claims which has been heard from him at intervals for many years. I .began this little cam paign.··of question •and answer for the purpose .of silencing this gun,. and I have effectually done it.

At present Mr. Ingalls finds .but one course open to him, viz., to deny that he ever denied. . The plea comes at a sus.. piciously .late hour. Strange· that he did not· advance it in resgonseto my first questions £ourmonths. ago, and thus save much· time, trouble and ink. But never mind; late or not, IS it· 'true?

J:16 INDIVIDUAL· LIBERTY Mr. Ingalls denied,-or, if he did not deny, he expressed a doubt equivalent to a denial and equally calling for proof that mutual banking can eradicate usury, and the phraseology· shows that he meant by this to deny that mutual banking I can eradicate the payment of a premium for the use of money. And, if I had his entire writings for the last :fifteen years be fore me, I could point out equally· conclusive instances. As I have not, I can only say that I remember such. Thus ends this matter. Now Mr. Ingalls desires rile to discuss with him the question of the existence of what h~ calls economic interest,-that is, the question whether people can do more with capital than without it. He asks me to retract my ccdenial of the existence of economic .interest." I pledge him my word that I will retract it as soon as he shall quote to me the passage in which the denial occurred. There exists no such passage. To have denied so trite a truth would have been no less remarkable than Mr. Ingalls' grave persistence in affirming it. I do not approve the new use that Mr. Ingalls makes of the word,interest, but I have nothing to say in dispute of the entirely undisputed idea which he expresses by the phrase, cceconomicinterest." When he denied my posi tion, I had a right to expect. him to answer my questions.

When he shall show that I have denied his position, he will have a similar right to expect me to answer his questions. .And, if he drives me into a corner, I swear that he shall hear no complaint from me that he is trying to ccforce answers." NECESSITY FOR A STANDARD OF VALUE In the early 90'S, the Galveston News had on its staff an exceptionally able and clear-thinking editorial writer. Liberty frequently reprinted his editorials. Concerning one on cCThe Functions of Money" Mr. Tucker wrote the following article for the News: I ENTIRELY sympathize with your disposal of the Evening Post's attempt to belittle the fWlction of money as a medium INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 117 o£exchange; but eto.yougo:farenough when you content yourself with'~aying that a s.tandardofvalue is highly desir.. able? Is it, hot absolutely.necessary? Is llloney' possiblewith~ out ". ·it?' If.' ·no ,standard is .dennitely.adopted, and, then, •.,if papefmo11ey is issued, does not the nrst commodity that the mst. note' is exchanged , for.' immediately •become'a standard of value? Is not the secondholdero£ the note governed in making. his'next purchase by ,!hathe parted with in his·,pre..

viougg~le~· •. ,0£ course it'isifl.verypoorst~nd~rd,th~t is thug arrived at, and one that must come in conflict with other standards adopted in > the same indefinite way by othere~.. changes' occurring .independently but .almos~ simultaneously wi~hthe first one abovesupposed.iButso do gold and silver come in conflict noW'. Doesn't it alhshowthat the idea o£a stan4ard isinseparcable. from •money? '. Moreov:er, there is iDa: danger in, a. standard. 'Ehe whole ,trouble disappears with the abolition of the basis privilege. The News pripted the atticle,. ,but followed it with a .. rejo~nder 'in' which. itattetnpted tOlIlain taittits ,previous ppsition. In the columns of Liberty, then, Mr. Tucker pt()ce,ededwith the' discussion: FIRST, 1 questiQn•.•. the· News' admission that· .... a. measure". of 'Yaluediffers fro111.a measure. of .length in that·, the· fOt"tn~r is empirical. True, value isa ,.relation;but then, what is extension? . Is not.· that .a' ,relation •. also,-;-the '.' relation of. an c:>bj¢ct tc:> space? If so, then the yardstick does not possess.

tbequality ofextensiOll in itself,byingas4ependent for.it "pon space •.••asgold .is .dependent "for .its.·•value ·upon oth~r <;omfi1odities. But this is/metaphysical and may lead us, far; therefore I 'donotinsist~ and' pass.'on. toa moreimportallt consideration. S,~colld, I question whether .the •• News'$ ... u~ounterva:iling difference .between· a .standard.,Q£.lepgth and,.a standard ,0£ value" est~blishes all that it claims.. In the supposed case of ·~bi;lnk.loan secured ·by 1ll0rtgage,.the margin between tpe val~~tionand theobligati0tl; practically secures the nate holder agains~ loss from adeclitlein the value of the security, but it •.doesnot secure him against loss from· a decline in the lIS INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY value of the standard, or make it impossible for him to profit bya rise in the value of the standard. Suppose that a farmer, having a farm worth $ 5000 in gold, mortgages it to a bank. as security for a loan of $2500 in notes newly issued by the bank against this farm. With these notes he purchases implements from a manufacturer. When the mortgage expires a year later, the borrower fails to lift it. Meanwhile gold has declined in value. The farm is sold under the hammer, and brings instead of $ 5000 in gold, $6000 in gold. Of this sum $2 500 is used to meet the notes held by the manufacturer who took them a year before in payment for the implements sold to the farmer. Now, can the manufacturer buy back his implements with $2500 in gold? Manifestly not, for by the hypothesis gold has gone down. Why, then, is not this manufacturer a sufferer irom the variation in the standard of value, precisely as the man who buys cloth with a short yardstick and sells it with a long one is a sufferer from the variation in the standard of length? The claim that a standard of value varies, and inflicts damage by its variations, is perfectly sound; but the same is true, not only of the stan dard of value, but of every valuable commodity as well. Even if there were no standard of value and therefore no money, still nothing could prevent a partial failure of the wheat crop from enhancing the value of every bushel of wheat.

Such evils, so· far as they arise from natural causes, are in the nature of inevitable disasters and must be borne. But they are of no force whatever as an argument against the adoption of a standard of value. If every yardstick in existence, in stead of constantly remaining thirty-six inches long, were to vary from day to day within the .. limits of thirty-five and thirty-seven inches, we should still be better off than with no yardstick at all. But it would be no more foolish to abolish the yardstick because of such a defect than it would be to abolish the standard of value, and therefore money, simply because no commodity can be found for a standard which is not subject to the law of supply and demand. At this point Mr. Alfred B. Westrup, who believed that to talk of a standard of value was not only a de lusion but a misuse of language and whose ideas had INDIVIDUALLIBER TY IIg been. refered to in the controver~y, took a hand in the discussion. Mr. Tucker then turned his attention to him: Ma. WESTRUP'S r article sustains in the clearest manner· my conteQtion that money is impossible without a standard of value. ·Starting out to show that such a standard is adelu sian,.he does not succeed in writing four·sentences des~rip tiveof 'his•proposed bank before he adopts that <Cdelusion.""

He tells us that (tone of the conditions in obtaining the notes (paper money) of the Mutual Bank is that they will be taken in lieu of current money." What does this mean? Why, simply that the patrons of the bank agree to take its notes as the equivalent of gold coin. of the same face .value. In other words, they, agree to adopt gold as a standard of value. They will part with as much property in return for the. notes as •they would part. with in return for gold. And if there were no .~uch standard, the notes would not pass at all, be cause nobody would have any idea of the amount of property that he ought to exchange· for them. The naivete·with which r •Mr. Westrup gives away his case shows triumphantly the puerility of his'raillery at the idea. of a standard of value. Indeed, Comrade Westrup,. I ask nothing bett~r than to discuss the practicability of mutlJal banks. All the work that I have been doing for liberty these nineteen years has been directed steadily to the establishment of the ~onditions that alone will make them practicable. I have no occasion to show the necessity fa a standard of value•. Suc!) necessity is al ready recognize by •the. people whom we are trying to con vince of the tr th of mutual banking. It is for you, who deny thisnecess ty, to give your •reasons. And in the very moment in whic you undertake to tell us why you deny it, you admit it ithoutknowing it. It would never have 09curred to me 0 dis.cuss the abstract theory of a· standard of value. I rega dit as too well settled. But when you, one of the most co spicuous and faithful apostles of mutual banking, begin t bring the theory into discredit and ridicule by •• t,asing your rguments in its favor 01). a childish attack against one. of the simplest of financial. truths,.· I am as much bound to .repudiate your heresy as. an .engineer would 12.0 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY he to disavow the calculations of a man who should begin an attempt to solve a difficult problem in engineering by deny ing the multiplication table.

I fully recognize Mr. Westrup's faithful work for freedom in finance and the ability with which he often defends it. In fact, it is my appreciation of him that has prevented me from criticising his error earlier. But when I see Individualists holding Anarchism responsible for these absurdities and on the strength of them making effective attacks upon a financial theory which, when properly defended, is invulnerable,-it seems high time to declare that the free and mutual banking advocated by Proudhon, Greene, and Spooner never con templated for a moment the desirability or the possibility of dispensing with a standard pi value. If others think that a standard of value is a delusion, let them say so by all means; but let them not say so in the name of the financial theories and projects which the original advocates of mutual banking gave to the world. Another phase of the standard of value problem, con cerning currency and its convertibility, was thus treated by the editor of Liberty: To AVOID misunderstanding, it should be stated that, when: Mr. Yarros urges the substitution of convertibility into pro., ducts for convertibility into gold as a quality of the circu lating medium, he does not refer at all to that convertibility in point of right which is guaranteed by the issuer of a note, but simply to that convertibility in point of fact which exists when a note finds ready circulation. He means to say that the currency of a mutual bank, while not redeemable-in 'gold on demand at the hank, will be to all intents and pur poses redeemable in products on demand at the store of every dealer. His position is correct, but his new use of the words cCconvertibility" and cCredeemability" will lead to much mis understanding when not accompanied by such an explanation 'as that which I have just given.

A similar use of these terms in a previous article by Mr. Yarros led a Philadelphia correspondent to ask me what, even supposing that gold were retained' as a standard of value, INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY IZI would maintain the equality of a paper dollar with a gold dollar ·if the paper dollar were redeemable" not in gold, but in commodities. The gentleman evidently supposed Mr. Yarros, •to mean that mutual currency would be redeemed in commodities. by the bank. If such were the case, then, to be sure, the value of the mutual money would he measured, not by gold, but by the commodities in whiCh.the bank agreed to redeem it. Gold in that case would no longer be the standard of value, its, function as such being' pertonneJ, h1 stead by the commodity chosen by the bank for redemption purposes. My corresp~ndent was guilty of an absurdity in supposing gold to be still, the standard in such a case, but he was led into this absurdity by Mr. Yarros's use of the term «convertibility," which was not easily intelligible to one not ,perfectly familiar with the mutualbanking idea.

Mutual money will, be ,expressed in ,terms of some chosen standard of, value; if gold .be chosen, then in terms of gold. It will be based, not necessarily or probably on gold, but on notes given by the borrowers and secured by mortgage on the borrower's property. It ,will not be redeemable ,in gold on demand at the bank. It will circulate readily, and without depreciation, if the bank has a good standing with the com munity and with the clearinghouse. It will be redeemed, in the vastmajqrity, of cases,' by a re-exchange of it for the borrowers' notes against which it was originally issued. That is, 'the .' borrower ,himself will present at the bank ,notes equiva lent to, those, which he received from the' bank, and will get in exchange the notes which he gave to the bank and a can cellation 'of the mortgage on his property. If he does not do this, the mortgage on his property will be foreclosed, and the property will be sold at auction. It will be sold for gold, if gold is what the holders of the bank's notes desire. And it is this. fact-that such a sale of the property insures an ulti ~ate redemption. in gold if demanded-which will maintain the equality of fUutual money with gold.

The liability to misinte·rpretation is increased by Mr.Yarros's statement that Hthe government could not issue.currency re deemable in products, ,since it hasn't ~ny products." The indication. here. is that a mutual" bank· issuing currency re deemable in· products must have products., •But this is con trary to the,' mutual, banking idea, and' equally contrary,,' I 122 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY am sure, to the meaning that Mr. Yarros intended to convey, -namely, that the government could not issue currency that would circulate, to borrowers mortgaging no property for its security. The Anarchists maintain that government should not engage in the business of issuing money, but there is nothing in the nature of mutual banking that makes it im possible for the government to carry it on; and, if it de cided' to carry it on, it would not need products (beyond those mortgaged by borrowers) in order to issue a circulating currency any more than a private banking enterprise would need them. 'The statement of Mr. Yarros tends to confirm the reader in the, mistaken idea that under mutual banking the bank notes will be redeemed in products at and by the bank.

In a letter to the editor of Liberty, Mr. Steven T., Byington reported a discussion which he had had with a professor of political economy and in which he had taken the position that, in order to maintain the value of mutual money and to keep the notes of a mutual bank at par, all property pledged to the bank as security should be appraised in terms of the standard of value, and that the loans offered should never exceed a certain ratio to this appraisal. He also contended that the steady supply and demand would keep the value of the notes at a steady ratio to the standard in which the property was appraised. Mr. Tucker then analyzed and criticised those ideas: IN COMMENT on Mr. Byington's letter, I can say at once that with him I should oppose any legal restriction of, the denominations of the notes issued by mutual banks. It is probable that Colonel Greene himself ,would oppose such restriction, were he alive today. It must be remembered that his UMutual Banking" is an economic rather than a political treatise, and was written at a time when the philosophy of Anarchy had been scarcely heard of in this country. Never theless 'I consider it an exaggeration to say that Greene, to INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 12) keep mutual bank notes at par, uwould depend wholly" on .this restriction, or -even -on the •customers' contract to take the notes at par with the standard. I have not a copy of UMutualBanking" at hand, and do not remember whether there is any sentence in it which warrants Mr. Byington's sta'tement; but, even if there is, it is -none the less an ex aggeration (by the author himself) .ofhis real position. FOl.· the customers' willingness to make this -- cpntract depends in turn upon their knowledge thatthe notes will ultitnately command their face value - at the -bank. As soon as the general-public, through time and experience, becomes pos sessed of •this knowledge, the customers' contract may be dispensed _with. without the least impairment of the value of -the notes. The restriction and .the _contract were, in Greene's mind, OJlly devices tor making plain to the public the truth upon which he placed his real dependence,-viz., that, if the original borrower of the notes should fail to meet his obligations to the -bank, the security for the notes would-be converted into the- .actual commodity adopted as standard, .and this commodity _used in redemption of the notes. It is this great fact that will ~lways keep mutual bank notes at par. And it will-do this whether the standard is .actually coined and in •circulation, or not. Nothing is needed· but the standard's presence in the market as a com mddity. The market quotations of the price of gold per grain serve the purpose as well as the actual circulation of coined dollars.

Mr. Byington's plan for keeping the notes at par doesn't make as great an impression upon me as it did upon his pro fessor of political economy. He se~ms to think he has made a discovery. B,ut all that is true in his plan is old-and has long been accepted asa matter. of course, while all that is new -- in it is in flat contradiction with the cardinal truth about mutual money which distinguishes it vitally and eter~ nally from all forms of fiat money. Outside of those who deny the possibility of a standard of value (a quantity which may safely be neglected), no believer ill: mutual banking within my knowledge ever dreamed·of appraising the property pledged as security in anything -but the standard. It -is largely for this purpose that a standard is necessary. A safe 1.atioof notes issued to standard valuation of security' is 12.4 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY another point that the defenders of mutual banking regularIl insist upon •. Greene urges two dollars of security for each dollar.;.note. Competition between the banks will fix this ratio. Those banks adopting a ratio which unduly sacrifices neither safety or enterprise will get the business. These two points of Mr. Byington's plan-appraisal in terms of standard and ratio of issue to appraisal-are very good, and they hav~ grown gray in their goodness. But, when he assumes that the value of the notes issued will be regulated by their supply and demand, he .becomes a financial heretic of the worst description.

There is nothing more certain (and oftener denied) in finance than the statement which Colonel Greene, in cCMu_ tual B~nking," prints in. small capitals,-that mutual money differs from merchandise money (and, I may add, from fiat money also) in that it is absolutely exempt from the opera tion of the law of supply and demand. Be there more of it, or be there less, the value of each note remains the same. The hypothesis of free and mutual banking excludes on the one hand any legal limitation of the supply of currency whereby each note would acquire an extra value due to the enforced scarcity of the tool of exchange, and, on the other hand, any inflation of the currency to a volume exceeding the basis or sufficiently aproaching the limit of the basis to inspire an appreciable fear that the notes are in danger from a possible depreciation of the security. Now, within these limits no change in the volume of the currency can by any possibility affect the value of the individual paper dollar. The value of the paper dollar depends not at all upon the demand and supply of paper dollars, but altogether upon the demand and supply of the kinds of property upon which the paper dollars rest. And, unless these kinds of property themselves depreciate sufficiently to endanger the notes, each paper qollar is worth a standard dollar, 'neither more or less. Mr.

Byington's plan for maintaining this parity by providing steadiness in. the demand and supply of notes is worthless, then, for two reasons: first, of itself it could do nothing to ward accomplishing its purpose; second, without it its pur pose is otherwise accomplished. I do not know how to respond to Mr. Byington's request that I describe more fully the method of this accomplishment. If he will try to point out IND'IVIDUAL LIBERTY I2'S just what it is that he does not understand, I will try to make him understand it. Mr.• Byington, in his letter in another column, asks'me' what would maintain the par value of mutual bank notes ina community where every borrower promptly meets his obliga tions to the bank' as they mature,. in the absenc~ of any contract binding the individual parties. thereto to· receive the bank not:es. at: •par. Mr. Ry~rtgton's hypothetical com.m.unity is one in which every man in. it is as certain as of the· daily rising of the sun that every other man in it is thoroughly honest, absolutely capable, infallible in judgment, and entirely exempt from liability to accident. Such must be the case in any. eommunitywhere there· is andean be absolutely no failure to meet financial obligations. 'In this ideal. commun itythe necessity ,for collateral as security for mutual money vanishes. . But. so •also vanishes the necessity of any agree ment to take the notes at par, for it is perfectly certain that then· the notes. will be so taken whether such an agreement exists. or not. And the knowledge of. this fact, arising out· of the ·absolute certainty prevailing on every hand, would be 'more potent in maintaining the par value of the notes than any confidence based.on contract. The supposed community, however, is, if not an absurd impossibility,. at least too remote a possibility to be considered. ..During the pre-millennial pet;iod.it will be necessary to count on the element· of risk in considering banking. problems. While. risk remains, col lateral will be a necessity. Now, this collateral, instead Qf being a subsidiary· security, is the final dependence of all who. use the money. Even those who contract to receive the moneymake this contract mainly because they know the collateral to have .been deposited or pledged. All the other devices for security are merely props to .this main bulwark."

Abandon this .bulwark, and, until risk disappears from the world, bank notes will depreciate. Maintain it, and, though all. the props be removed, the notes will· remain at par. People who live by' buying and selling merchandise will always. take in lieu ofa gold dollar that ,which they know, and. which .other' dealers know, to be convertible into a gold dollar if the occasion for such conversion shall arise. In answer to the c,losing paragraph of Mr. Byington's .letter, I 126 INDIVIDUAL LIBER TY need only point out that to use the fact that mutual money will be at par with the standard as a reason for dispensing with the cause that maintains it at par with the standard is to reason in a circle. Mr. Byington was still not quite satisfied, and, in order that Mr. Tucker's meaning might be made a little more clear to him, he asked for answers to the following questions: HIn the ideal community of perfect men, what would make it certain that mutualbank notes would be taken at par, if there were no contract to take them at par?" and HIn the present world, what will maintain the value of a mutualbank note which has good collateral, if call the props be removed', or if that particular prop be removed which consists in the contract to take the money at par?" To which the editor of Liberty replied: IN AN ideal community of perfect men, from which, by the hypothesis, failure to meet financial obligations is absolutely eliminated, mutualbank notes would circulate, even if un secured, because this very hypothesis implies a demand for these notes, after their issue; borrowers must regain pos session of them in order to make the hypothesis a reality, and those from whom the·· borrowers buy will accept the notes from them in the first place because they know-again by the hypothesis-that the borrowers must in some way recover them. They will circulate at par because, being issued in terms of a commodity standard, and redemption by cancel-.

lation being assured, there is no reason why they should circulate at a figure below their face. Or, at least, if there is such a reason, it is incumbent upon Mr. Byington to point it out. ' In the existing unideal world the collateral securing a mutualbank note would guarantee its holder that, unless the original borower buys back the note in order to cancel therewith his own note held by the bank, the bank itself will ultimately convert the collateral into the commodity IN DI V I D UALL I BE R T Y 127 agreed upon for redemption purposes a.ndwith the proceeds buy .back the· note. Therefore· it is precisely this converti bility, even though conversion is not to be had. on demand, that will maintain the value of the mutualbank note. The' mutual batik will never show anybody that paper money which is· never convertible can ever be made steadily useful in an unideal world, e~ther with or.withouf a govern ment fiat. For such is not die truth, and neither the mutual hank or anything eh:e can establish an error.

Mutual banking, it is true, is not a cardinal doctrine of Anarchism. But free banking is. Now, free banking will lead to mutual banking, and mutual banking is the greatest single step that can possibly be taken in the direction. of emancipating labor from poverty. Mutual banking, then, is as intimately connected with Anarchism 'as though it were one of its· cardinal· doctrines. Liberty is .. valuable only as it contributes to happiness, and to this end no single liberty is as necessary at presen~ as the liberty of banking. Because the editor· of Liberty considered it important to demolish Uthe most specious· plea" that had yet ap peared for uthe notion that a monetary system is pos sible without a standard of value," he asked Mr. Hugo Hilgram to review Mr. Arthur .Kitson's uA Scientific Solution of· the .Money Question." Mr. Bilgram per formed the task in a masterly manner, ,and Mr. Tucker ,added the following caustic criticism 10£ Mr. Kitson's book: IT OFTEN happens that some of the most active men in a movement aren\>t its most rational exponents. The move ment for freedom in finance is an .instance of this truth.

Two or three of its most enthusiastic propagandists are basing their .advocacy· upon propositions regarding' value a1l;d. its measurement which are so absurd that I.have to blush for the rational utterances which I find in their company. If I ·.were interested in some great discovery! in mechanics, and if others interested with me were to· persist in. bringing it into ridicule by associating it with, and even basing it upon,,, 128 INDIVIDU AL LIBER TY a professed solution of the perpetual motion problem, I could not 'feel a deeper sense of humiliation for my cause than I feel when I receive a new book, written by an earnest comrade, in which the social ends that I seek are defended on grounds so laughably untenable that they give rational men a warrant for entertaining a suspicion of our sanity. Such a book is Mr. Kitson's, which, in asking for freedom in finance for the purpose of creating a monetary system pro fessing to estimate concrete values in the terms of a value less abstraction, is liable to do more harm to the cause' of financial freedom than all the writings of the orthodox eco nomists. It may seem that, in calling upon one of the ablest living writers on finance to expose an error so childish, I have trained a columbiad upon an egg-shell. Yet, after all. one is seldom set a more difficult task than that of dealing with those forms of error which fly in one's face with a flat and fatuous denial of truths so nearly axiomatic that they do not admit of much elucidation. Of this task Mr. Bilgram has acquitted himself triun1.phantly. Mr. Kitson's theory of an invariable monetary unit is riddled completely. If Mr. Kitson will set himself to answer the question asked him by Mr.

Bilgram regarding the value, in terms of the invariable unit, of several commodities assumed to have certain exchange relations on the day following the adoption of this unit, he will begin to appreciate the difficulties of his situation. I would like him to deal also with a problem of somewhat similar character which I will set him. Suppose that today, April 20, 1895, Mr. Kitson's monetary system goes into operation. Suppose, further, that, in his preliminary tabulation \ of the exchange relations of commodities as existing on' April 20, he finds that 48 ounces of silver == 1 ounce of gold == 200 ounces of copper; and that he takes I ounce of gold, at its valuation of April 20, as his invariable unit. A year elapses. On April 20, 1896, the exchange relations of silver, gold, and copper, in consequence of variations in the supply and demand of these commodities, are found, we will sup pose, to be as follows: 48 ounces of silver == 3 ounces of gold == 300 ounces of copper . Now let us leave copper out of consideration for a moment. If on April 20, 1895, when 48 ounces of silver were worth I ounce of gold, I ounce of gold was worth 1 unit, then on April 20, 1896, when 48 INDIVIDUAL LIBERT·Y 1';9 ounces of silver are worth 3 ounces of gold, I ounc.e of gold is worth 1/3 of a unit .. So far, so.good. Now let us t.ake copper into consideration once more,but leave .out silver.

If •on •• April 20, 1895, when 200 ounces of copper were worth 1 ounce of gold, 1 ounce o( gold was worth I unit, then on April 20, 1896, when 200 ounces of copper are worth 2 ounces of· gold, I ounce of gold is worth ~ .of a unit. But we have just proved it to be worth .• I/J of a unit. That is to say, starting with the same data and ±ol1owln$ two parallel and irrefutable lines of argument, we arrive at con",", tradictory conclusions. And by taking other commodities into account and applying the same argument in each case, it could be. shown that, with Mr.· Kitson'sUinvariable" unit, an ounce of. gold at any given moment would have a thousand and one' different'values,all·expressed in terms of the sam.e unit. Or denomiJ?ator. In .dealing· thus •. ·severely .with Mr. Kitson's book, I am moved by no unfriendly spirit,··and· I have no inclination ·to deny that it contains much valuable truth,-truth that would be of great service to liberty. were itnotttqueered" by pages of intolerable balderdash. Iwould like the work to be read by every person who has previously familiarized himself with the literature of free and mutual banking. •But no work could be better calculated to fill the mind of a beginner with confusion· and that of a ·keen oppon ent with contempt. For this reason I cannot include it~ much to my regret-in the literature·· of Liberty'spropa ganda.

Concerning Mr. Tucker's crItICIsm of Mr. Kitson's book, Mr. Victor Yarros submitted some quotations from Proudhon which seemed to indicate that that greateco nomistdid not •• believe in the necessity for· a standard of value. The editor. of Liberty thus analyzed the quota ... tions and discussed them: I DO NOT consider the question thus .raised of very great importance. I-Iowever momentous the standard-of-value question may be in· itself, it is of· very little consequence •on which side of it any given writer stands, unless,:6.rst, .he 130 INDIVIDUAL L.IBERT-Y takes his position so clearly and unmistakably that those who read him most attentive,!y can agree, at least broadly, as to what his position is, and, second, brings arguments to bear in support of his position sufficiently weighty, and sufficiently different from the arguments adduced by others, to exercise an influence where other arguments have failed to induce agreement.

I do not accept Proudhon or anyone else as a financial authority beyond question. There is more than one important point in his banking plan to which I cannot give assent. Proudhon has made a signal. and a revolutionary contribution to economic science by his overpowering demonstration that the chief hope of labor lies in the power of monetization of all its products,-a power now allowed only to one or two of them. For this he has my lasting gratitude and honor, but not my worship. I grant him no infallibility, and I reserve my right to differ when his declarations do not commend themselves to my reason. On the matter now at issue his works do not throw much light. In his numerous volumes of financial writings references to the standard-af-value ques tion are casual, incidental, and rare. Even if they were clearly against the standard-of-value theory, they would call for little ~ttention or opposition from me, because they are inconspicuous, because they are ass~rtions rather than argu ments, and because they are not, basic in .his financial plan.

With Mr. Kitson it is different. He places his opposition to a standard of value at the very foundation of his theory, he pretends that it is basic, and he even declares that with a standard of value the free-money theory becomes ridiculous. It is necessary therefore, to attack him in a way in which it would not be necessary to attack Proudhon, even could it be shown that the latter's references to a standard of value are clearly antagonistic to it. But, were it necessary to attack Proudhon, I should not hesitate to do so. I have no gods. But now to the merits. I claim that Proudhon acknowl edged the necessity of a standard of value; that the passages cited from his writings in Mr. Yarros's letter are not clearly and conclusively against the theory of a standard, but are capable of another explanation; that one or two other pas sages can be cited which are so clearly in favor of the theory INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 131 of a standard as to exclude any other explanation; and that most ,important of ,',all-a standard of value .isadopted both in, his Bank of Exchange and his Bank of the People.

Let us examine first the quotations 'cited 'by Mr. ,Yarros, four in number. The first, which speaks of Law, Ricardo, and the economists as tcalways taking metal. asa standard of value," does not thereby antagonize the theory of a stan dard of value. The most that can be gathered from, it is a hint that Proudhon considered that, when all values should be ttconstituted," to use his phrase, perhaps a better standard tha.n metal might be found. It is fair'to presume that, if he had been opposed to a standard, he would have said ttal_ ways, taking a standard of value." The. phrase actually used implies opposition to metal rather titan opposition to. a standard.' The proposal, in the second quotation, to destroy the royalty of •gold and to republicanize specie by making each .product of labor. current money does not necessarily mean anything more than an intention to strip 'specie of its ex~ elusive 'privilege as a basis of currency and to give each product of la1;>or the liberty of representation in the currency.

In fact, Liberty and the free-money advocates who believe in a >standard have, always been. in the. habit of using these phrases from Proudhon to express exactly that idea. The concluding portion' of ,the second quotation obviously refers to paper based upon metal and not simply expressed,in terms of metal; and its language, like the language of the first quotation, impliesoppos.ition to metal rather than to a standard. The third quotation simply establishes the undisputed point that Proudhon did not believe in a currency redeemable in sp~cie. This is an entirely separate que~,#on from that of the necessity of a standard of value. It '. is perfectly possible, theoretically, for a bank to, issue currency on an understand ing tha-t its members are pledged to receive it in lieu of ,a definite quantity of a definite commodity, {.without any promise or intention on the part of, the. bank, to redeem it in the said commodity or in any other commodity. True, I do not think that such a currency is practicable; that is tosay, Ido not thjnkthat, the world being what it is, such a currency would circulate. This is one of the important 132 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY points, already referred to by me, on which I disagree with Proudhon. But it in no way concerns the standard-of-value problem.

A greater stumbling-block is the fourth quotation. I do not pretend to know the thought that lay in Proudhon's mind when he wrote it. But I do know that he could not have intended to exclude the idea of the necessity of a standard, for this is proved by the sentence immediately preceding it, -a sentence which Mr. Yarros's correspondent could not have understood, since, if he had understood it, honesty would have forbidden him to omit it. Here it is: HEach subscriber [to the Bank] binds himself to receive in every payment, from any person whomsoever, and at par, the paper of the Bank of Exchange." At par, mind you. At par with what; if you please? Evidently at par with some chosen standard; and, no other standard being specified, evidently at par with the ordinary specie standard. In the absence of a standard of value, to talk of any currency as receivable at par is to use a nonsensical phrase.

So much for the passages cited. It may be said of them, as it may be said with truth of many other passages ill Proudhon's writings on many other subjects, that it is to be regretted that they are not more explicit. But it cannot be truthfully said of them that they establish Proudhon's opposition to the adoption of a standard of value. Look now at the evidence on the other side. First of all, there is the passage which I have cited in the last paragraph but one. As I have pointed out, the words ((at par" absolutely necessitate a standard of value, and exclude any other ex planation. This is sufficient in itself. Even if a passage were to be discovered indisputably denying the necessity of a standard,.it would prove only that Proudhon had flatly con tradicted himself. But this is not all. In the chapter on value in the HCon tradictions" these words occur: HIn geometry the point of comparison is extent, and the unit of measure is now the division of the circle into three hundred· and sixty parts, now the circumference of the terrestrial globe, now the average dimension of the human arm, hand, thumb, or foot.

In economic science, we have said after Adam Smith, the INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY X33 point of !view frbrn which all values are compared is labor; as for the unit of measure, that adopted in France is the FRANC." The small capitals, here are Proudhon's own. Now, a franc" like a dollar, is a definite quantity' commodity, four and one-half grammes of silver alloyed with half a gramme of copper,-and anyone who will read this passage carefully~and especially in connection with its several pages of contex~will see that the author means to point out a precise analogy ,between the adoption, of a ,dehnite amou~t of extension embodied in a' material object as a standard of length, and the adoption of a definite quantity of labor embodiedwa definite commodity as a st~ndard of value; yet it is t¥s, very analogy which the opponents of a standalid deny and attempt to ridicule. This passage also is conclusiv~; it excludes any, other interpretation. < Above, all, however," and finally disposing of the subject, are the provisions contained in the constitutions of the Bank of Exchange and the Bank of the People. No note was to be issued by the fbrmer for any sum less than twenty francs (four dollars), and it was specified in Article I 8 that the Bank would make change in coin. This is unintelligible except' on· the hypothesis that a franc in the 'Bank's' paper was to b~ kept at par with a silver franc. For, if the silver franc were worth more than the paper franc, it would be ridiculous for the Bank t9pay out a silver franc when it owed only a paper franc; and, if the silver franc were worth less, it would be equally ridiculous to suppose that anyone would?t'l\e it from the Bank in lieu of a paper franc. Again, in Article· 2 I of the act incorporating the Bank of the People, we f1;~d this: UEvery producer or merchant adhering,to the Bank' of the People binds himself to deliver to the other adherents, at a reduced price, the articles which he manu factures or offers 'for sale." At a price reduced from what?

The phrase can mean only that the merchant agrees to put a pre111ium on the Bank's paper. Now, a premium implies a stanilard. More conclusive still, if possible, is Article 24, whiclj says: uAll consumers, whether associated or not,who desire; to profit by the low prices guaranteed by the pro ducers· adhering to the Bank, of, the People will turn over to the "Bank ,the coin intended, for.' their purchases ~nd will 134 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY receive an equal sum in the Bank's paper." That is to say, Proudhon's Bank was to issue its notes against coined gold and silver among other things, franc for franc. Need more be said? Besides this direct evidence there are circumstantial con siderations of much force. One of these is that a thinker like Proudhon, writing many volumes on finance with the intent of revolutionizing it,-of making the sun rise in the 'West instead of in the east, as he once expressed it,-would unquestionably have argued at great length the standard.;.

ofvalue question, if he had dreamed of denying fora moment the current view that money is an impossibility without a standard. But the fact is that he said very little about the question, and in the little that he did say, instead of always taking pains to make his language clear and unmis takable, sometimes expressed himself carelessly, as one is apt to do when speaking upon a matter where he does not fear misinterpretation. A. second telling circumstance is that Colonel William B.Greene, a disciple of Proudhon who enjoyed with him for years in Paris a personal acquaintance and a considerable in timacy, did not, when noting in his CCMutualBanking" cer tain points of difference between Proudhon's plan and his own, even h~nt at any difference regarding the necessity of a standard of value, although Colonel Greene himself, who saw the importance of a clear position on this matter, treated the question at some length in another part of his pamphlet.

There can be little doubt that, if there had been any differ ence between them on this point, Colonel Greene would have alluded to it either in tcMutual Banking" or in his later writi~gs on finance. It is further significant that in the many conversations regarding Proudhon and regarding finance which I have had with Colonel Greene, he never signified in the remotest way that Proudhon rejected the standard-of value theory. Believing that it has cleared Proudhon of the charge that he entertained the Kitsonian absurdity, the defence rests, and awaits the plaintiff's rebuttal. I hope no one will suspect Mr. Yarros of being the plaintiff's attorney. He is not. It is simply as a juror that he makes his request for in formation.

IINDIVIDUAL LIBERTY THE REDEMPTION OF. PAPER MONEY In a paper entitled teBanking and the·· State,." :rea,d before the Single Tax Club of Chicago, Mr. A. W. Wright took the position,. which he considered of. the greatest importance, that paper. money must always be subject to immediate redemption, the sole reason assigned for that contention being thatnoth "ng· but publi.c con fidence can· mak,. paper money. poss hIe.· The edit()r of Liberty took. issue with him on that point: ' IT remains to be proved that im ediate redemption is ~ssential to public confidence. It is,o£ course, true that certainty of ·ultimate redemption is s ch an essential. But this is the, most that can be claimed. '. A run on a bank of issue is caused by ~the fear of the note-;holders.that the notes will·· nevfT. be redeemed, •. and not because they desire them redeemed at once. On the ,contrary, if they felt sure of ultimate redemption, ,.and felt sure that, Qther people felt equally sure, they ·would go precisely contrary to their desir~ in .presenting the notes for '. immediate redemption,. for' they are in need of the money for actual ,monetary use and in this respect find' solvent paper, preferable to gold. The! pledge of immediate redemption, far from being' -essential to the use fulness of paper money, is one of the two things that in the , past have done most to' cripple it (the other being the re striction of its basis to one or two forms of wealth). Paper money, to attain its highest usefulness, must be issued in thefo:rm of notes either maturing ata definite date or else redqemablewithin a certain period following demand. There would be no lack of confidence in such money, if issued against specific and good security. and. under· a system of bankin,giurnishing all kn9wn means of safeguarding and informing the public. Mr. Wright's mistake probably arises from a'dherence to the old notion that a hank of issue needs capital of its own, and that this .,capitalconstitutes th~ security of the noteholders. The •real fact is that the secur ityand all .the needful, .. capital is that which the borrowers themselves furnish. There is np special re~son why the State 136 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY should not do a banking business, but only those general reasons which make it improper for the State to undertake any business. The fact that it has nothing of its own is no bar, for it is in the very essence of money-issuing that it is done on other people's property.

When banks cease promising to pay on demand, it will no longer be possible to precipitate a panic by cornering gold. But as long as demand notes alone are issued, banks will have to keep large quantities of coin in their vaults, and there will be a constant effort on the part of speculators to gain con trol of specie, success in which will cause a run on the banks and a general lack of confidence. The true way to maintain confidence is to refrain from making promises that cannot be kept. The fact that less than half the gold is coined proves nothing. Gold has other than monetary uses. It is needed in the arts; and in the worst panics, when money is so scarce that business men will pay enormous prices for it, but little of the uncoined gold finds its way into the market. The pressure upon the rich in times of panic is never great enough to cause them to melt their jewelry, carry their watch-cases to the mint, or have the fillings extracted from their own teeth and those of their dead ancestors to be turned into coin. To induce such a result money would have to command' a much' higher price than it ever does. And yet the high price of money proves its scarcity.

Mr. Wright further errs, it seems to me, in saying that (tbanks should be permitted to issue paper money equal to their unimpaired capital,"implying thereby that they should not be permitted to issue more than this amount. This would be a virtual prohibition of mutual banks, which do not profess to have any capital and claim to need none. As Colonel Greene has pointed out, banks serve simply as clearing~houses for their customers' business p~per running to maturity, and no more need capital than does the central clearinghouse which serves them in the same way. By what right does Mr. Wright pretend to say how many notes a bank shall issue to people who are willing to receive them? I ask him in his own words: Must the State afford holders of bank paper pro tection that is denied to holders of individual notes? uCan a note of issue justly be held more sacred than other promises to pay?" In putting a limit to pap~r issues Mr. Wright vioINDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 137 lateshisprinciple of liberty· in finance. And he·does ~o again when he insists on· unlimited liability ..To deny therighto£ two. parties .to contract on a basis of limited •liability is to abridge the freedom of. contract. If unlimited liability isa better arrangement,. those banks which. offer it will survive, while the·other~ will go down. Trust more to liberty, Mr.

Wright, and less to law. Erroneous. also is .the statement that Hbills of. issue·should he a :first lien upon the assets of the bank." But th~s I h~ve no need. to discuss, for I have received a letter from Mr. Wright_in which he ~ays that he has changed his opinion., I am convinced that further reflection ·will show· him that prohibition of i.. other than·· demand notes, restrictions . upon theiamount of issue, and. invalidation of· contracts· specifying limi.ted liability are, equally with his ttfirst-lien" privilege~ unwarrantable invasions of individual and associative liberty, and, as such, entirely at variance with .·the great doctrine ·0£ which his essay is, in the main, so excellent an exposition. In a letter to the editor of Liberty Mr. Wright at.. tempted to defend himself, and from his statements it became evident that he .had not considered the use of anything but gold as a basis for!.banking. Mr. Tucker then went· more deeply into ·tha phase of the problem, a;s well as into other related aspets of mutual banking: IT.• now. app.ears that .the. p.OSsibili~y of a.nything else... t..ha.n gold as adequate security for. paP5.r money is a conception which Mr. Wright's mind. never~.efore entertained.' When .

I.•·S·v•..e..ak.•.of. p.a·p.er. money base.d...•.U.. p.. on. adequate secur.ity and ye•••.tnot •• upon gold, he opens .wide his yes and asks: .What can you mean? Why, my dear Mr. right, the very keystone of Anarchistic economics, so far as finance is concerned, is ft. the proposition to extend •from gold to all otliercommodities that right. of direct representation in the· currency which gold now·. enjoys exclusively. The prohibition, or ruinous taxation, .of money issued directly against .miscellaneous se curities· is the chief denial of freedom. pf. which the banking monopoly js ~uilty, and the right to so issue money is the 138 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY chief liberty which freedom in banking will bestow upon us. How this right may be utilized and the tremendous changes that would folloW' its exercise are things not explained in «Social Statics." To understand them Mr. Wright must lay down his Spencer and pick up Colonel Greene, whose ((Mutual Banking," though temporarily out of print, will probably be republished soon. If Mr. Wright will then read it carefully, our discussion will proceed more profitably. Meanwhile I will briefly examine the facts and arguments which he now offers.

For proof of the possibility of a solvent demand currency without a dollar-for-dollar coin reserve he advances the solvency of the Suffolk Bank and the Scotch banks. I answer that the case of the Suffolk Bank must be con sidered in connection with the history of the whole State banking system then prevailing. That history is one long succession of failures of banks intrinsically solvent but unable to. meet sudden demands for gold. During such an experience everything does not fall; something has to stand, and people naturally reserve their confidence for the institution which has the greatest reputation. The Suffolk Bank stood, not because it was solvent while other banks were insolvent, but because the noteholders knew that the men at the back of it were men of great reputation and wealth who could and would supply it with coin in case of need. The illustration is really an u~fortunate one for Mr. Wright, since by it he cites an entire banking system in which institution after institution, with assets far exceeding liabilities, were· forced to suspend for lack of ready coin.

The solvency of the Scotch banks is due mainly to the following facts: first, that the stockholders in every bank except the three old~st of these institutions are liable to the whole exent of their personal fortunes for the bank's debts; secondly, that Scotch law enables property, both real and personal, to b~ attached with exceptional ease; third, that every note issued by a bank in excess of its average circula tion for the year ending May I, 1845, must be represented by an equal amount of coin in its coffers; and, fourth, that all new banks of issue have been forbidden since 1845. I do not deny that under such conditions demand notes can hold their solvency without a full coin reserve; but ,certainly Mr.

IN D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y 139 Wright~ust ,withdraw his assertion that free banking pre vails in Scotland. It is surely an invasion to prohibit banks run on the plan of lin1ited liability. But where these are not prohibited and where there is otherwise perfect freedo1p. in •banking, there will be no banks on the plan of qnlimited liability, for, they could get no business. Wealthy men will not jeopardize their entire fortunes without beingr:oundly rewarded in the shape of dividends, and borrowers will not pay four, five, or six per cent. for the notes· of an unlimited. liability bank when they can get adequately-secured notes from a.limited-li~bi1ity bank for less than one percent. It should be added here that, however true the statement may have been when HSocial Statics" was written, it is not true now that no Scotch bill has ever been discredited. Two of the largest Scotch banks suspended in 18'57, and oneo£ them, the Western Bank, went entirely to. pieces; and, if my memory is correct,. Scotland •has .known one or two serious bank failures within the last· twenty years. ..

Mr. Wright is mistaken as to the n~cessary conditions of a ~ccorner." A commodity may be cornered whether there are any promises to deliver it in existence or not. It can be cornered to induce a scarci~y and consequent rise in price. Now, ,this rise in. price would surely be much greater, and therefore also the incentive. to·.create a corner, if the corner would give rise to. a panic and thus cause a tremendous arti ficial demand. And it.is precisely this that happens when gold is .cornered and demand notes are in circulation. There is just as much incentive for the speculator when he knows that he can frighten people into calling for ten millions on a certain day as when he knows that some one has promised to pay· ten millions on a certain day. Furth~rmore, the incentive· il'l;the former case would be very' much greater than.in the latter if the oblig'ation to pay the ten millions w.erein the latter case contingent upon the happening of a very improb able thing. Now with mutual banking! such would be the case. If the banks of New York held notes of borrowers to the amount ofa million dollars and all maturing on th~ same da.y, .and. if the million dollars (or slightly less) which the banks had issued in· their oWli hotes to these borrowers were redeemable in gold ata later day if not presented on the earlier day for. redempti?n by a re-exchange. of notes, the 140 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY borrowers, by turning in the bank-notes in fulfilment of their own obligations to the banks, would wipe out the banks' indebtedness of a million, with the exception of per haps two or three thousand dollars, the percentage of bad debts being very small. Thus gold would be needed only to settle this trivial balance, and so slight a demand would furnish very little incentive for a corner.

I have now examined all the evidence adduced by Mr. Wright to show that demand notes can surely stand against a run (the only question that I am now discussing with him), and I claim, on the strength of this examination, that the evidence leads to precisely the opposite conclusion. Mr. A. W. Wright has an interesting article in Electrical Engineering onccGovernmentalism versus Individualism in Relation to Banking." It is thoroughly and avowedly An archistic, and is written in answer to criticism directed against Mr. Wright's financial views by the so-called Professor Gun ton. Mr. Wright's paper is admirably brave and earnest, and presents the case for liberty in banking with great force. Nevertheless, there are grave heresies in it,-among them the assertions that it is impossible to get bank-bills into circula tion without agreeing to redeem them on demand, and that (Can IOU cannot be made secure· without totally destroying the economic reason for its existence." The reasons for the existence of an IOU are two in number: first, the desire of the giver ·of the IOU for an advance of capital; second, the generally-felt necessity of a circulating medium. Prac tically these two reasons are but one, since the desire of the giver of the IOU for an advance of capital is almost always a demand for that form of capital which will most readily buy all other forms,-that is, currency.

Now, to say that a man who needs more capital than he has, but who already has an amount of capital sufficient to enable him to secure his IOU by giving a mortgage, has therefore no reason to issue an IOU, or to say that suchan IOU, when issued, will not be received by others in exchange for goods because it is secured, is to go to the extreme length of possible economic absurdity. Yet it is precisely what Mr. Wright has said. He should have said, on the IINDIVIDUAL LIBER TY 141 contrary, that, unless liberty in banking will result in the issue of. IOU's as secure as the •best financial mechanism can make. them,. this liberty itself win lose much the weightier part of its reason for existence, becoming merely one of many petty liberties,-good enough in themselves, but not scream ingnecessities, or pregnant with great. results. If financial liberty will not result .in a secure currency, it will do nothing to lessen, the exploitation of labor. But in Anarchistic eyes the. destructive effect of liberty. upon •. human exploitation conStitutes ninety-nine per cent. of its value, and, if it will not .have.· such effect, Mr. Wright. is wasting his time· in writing sixteen:-page articles in its. favor.

In all polemical writing there frequently occurs the necessity of interpreting the language or statements of an author. Such an oCGasionaroseconcerning· a .sentence in Col. WilliamB. Greene's work on CCMutual Banking," . which tttade necessary the following analysis by the editor of Liberty: SOME months ago Comrade Henry Cohen wrote a letter to the. Conservator in which he declared that the ultimate of the mutual bank note is not. redem,ptiori, but· cancellation. He may-not. have used exactly these words,· but they do .not misrepresent the position that he took. The object of his letter was to show that the mutual· bank note is not redeem able in specie by its issuer. Ina.later issueof the Conservafo1* I undertook to correct Comrade Cohen, showing that, while cancellation. by· re-exchange f,or the borrower's note would. be the-usualmode of disposing of bank notes at maturity, their ultimate,.properly speaking, is .redemption in specie by the bank, since that v;rould he the course adopted incase of a borrower's .insolve'1cy and consequent failure to take up his own note given to the bank; and I intimated that.the author of ltMutual Banking" would not have died a peaceful death, could he have foreseen that .some.of hi~ disciples would rep resent him as favoring. an irredeemable currency.

When I said this, I. was unaware that a .single sentence cOtl1d.• be quoted from UMutual Banking" in support of Com142 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y rade Cohen's view. But Hugo Bilgram, seeing the letters in the Conservator, promptly wrote to me, calling my attention to the fact that, of the seven provisions constituting Greene's plan for a mutual bank, the seventh is that ((the bank sha;ll never redeem any of its notes in specie." Mr. Bilgram added that this sentence from ((Mutual Banking" is obviously in consistent with the rest of the work and seriously impairs its value, and, finally, he endorsed my position that a currency, to be reliable, must be ultimately redeemabl~ in a fixed amount of a specific commodity. Soon came also a letter from Cohen, in which, fresh from his editing of (tMutual Banking," he desired to know how I explain the very sentence cited by Mr. Bilgram. I now answer unequivocally that I do not attempt to explain it, and that Cohen would have been jus tified in pointing to it with an air of triumph, instead of asking me his modest question. When I wrote to the Con servator, I had forgotten that this sentence occurs in ((Mutual Banking." In fact, I never at any time could have been thoroughly aware of it. I first read the pamphlet in 1 87~.

Possibly I read it again a year or two later. During the last twenty years or more, though I have often re-read single pages, I have not read it from end to end. In 1872 the sub ject was new to me. I was greatly interested in it, and the pamphlet made a deep impresion on me, suggesting to me a thousand thoughts; but my· boyish unfamiliarity with dis cussions of finance made it impossible for me to subject each and everyone of its statements to that searching criticism which such a book would now rec.eive at my hands. The subsequent clarification of my thought was effected largely by personal intercourse with Colonel Greene himself. During the five years following 1872 which constituted the closing period of his life (he died at Tunbridge Wells, England, in 1877 or 1878) I had the privilege of his acquaintaace, and enjoyed many a long talk with him on the subjects in which we were most interested. It should be remembered that even then ((Mutual Banking" had been published almost a quarter of a century, and that in the meantime its author's thought, while not fundamentally changing, had undoubtedly matured, and· his methods of· presenting it had become more careful and precise. Now, in all our talks on finance, nevet on~e did he give expression to the doctrine laid down in the senINDivIDUAL LIBERTY 143 tence cited by Bilgram and Cohen;. on· the contrary, all. our arguments proceeded on the assumption. that a· mutual bank 1l0te.would be a claim. (though not a demand claim) on its issuer· for. specie. to the amount of its face.

In determining, then, whether Cohen' s interpretation·· of Greene or my own is the correct one, my testimony as to.·the conceptien of mutual banking which Tderived from Greene personally must be considered,· as well as the· inconsistency between the sentence ci.ted. a.nd.Greene'sproposa.l to ha.vethe nQtes secured .by .property salable under the hammer. .This inconsistency is seen as soon as we ask ourselves in what form payment would be made for propertY' sold under the hammer. It would have to be made either in specie or in. bank notes. Now, we calilnot assume that it would be made in bank notes, unless ~ealso· assume, •first, that it is· possible to float a· large· volume of mutual bank currency merely oil the strength of members' agreement to receive· it in trade in lieu of its face in specie, so thatno one would ever present a note . to the bank, even after m~turity, .for ·redemption in specie, _ arid, second,.that the insolvent borrower or his assignee would always consent· to . receive in bank notes so much·· of ,the proceeds of the sale as might remain to hi,s credit after satis faction of· the bank's claim,--both of which, in my view, are assumptions •of unwarrantable •violence. The payment, then,· would be made .in specie, and this specie.•. wo.uld have to be used partly in paying the balance due to the insolv,ent borrower.·and partly in calling in the bank notes which .the insolvent borrower had failed to pay in at the maturity of his obligation. But such calling in would be specie redemp tion, which is forbidden· in the. sentence cited by Cohen.

It seems tome'; then, that we are forced to the conclusion that this sentence was written carelessly by Colonel Greene, and that he really intended to say only that the bank shall never agree to redeem any of its notes in specie on demand. This conclusion is .further justified by Greene's provision for the acceptance of specie by the bank,. at caslightdiscount, in payment of debts due the. bank, and his failure to provide any means of disposing of the specie so accepted. The pre sumptionis that he expected it to be used in redemption of notes. (Let me •say, parenthetically, that I. dissent from Greene's .• proposal. to· receive specie at a-discount. Such dis144 IN D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y crimination might properly be made against bank bills re deemable on demand, but it would be absurd fora bank to discriminate against, and thus discredit, its own chosen stan dard of value.) Another fact of significance in this connection is that, of the seven provisions laid down in the fourth chapter of «Mutual Banking" as constituting the author's plan for a mutual bank, everyone except this questionable seventh is carefully embodied, almost word for word, in the petition for a general mutualbanking act which constitutes the fifth chapter, while this questionable seventh, though of the great est importance if it means what Cohen thinks, is omitted altogether.

I maintain, then, for the various reasons urged, that. Colonel Greene did not believe in an irredeemable currency, and I sug gest that, in subsequent editions of HMutual Banking," an editorial foot-note should adequately qualify the misleading sentence that has occasioned this discussion. Nevertheless, it clearly becomes me to apologize to Comrade Cohen for <Ccalling him down" so abruptly, when he really had at his back evidence of seemingly considerable strength. The question of the redemption of mutual bank notes in specie was still engaging the attenion of some of the students of the problem, Mr. Cohen still contending that the author of CCMutual Banking" did not expect the mutual banks to handle specie at all; and Mr. Francis D. Tandy arguing that, even with definite maturity dates, a great many of the. notes of the mutual bank would become payable in specie on demand, or else the bank would be compelled to accept from borrowers, in can cellation of loans, nothing but notes that have reached maturity, in which case the borrower might be obliged to pay a premium to obtain such notes. Mr. Tucker argued the matter still further with both his critics: AT the time when Colonel Greene wrote HMutual Bank ing," the banks of issue in vogue were the old State banks IN D I V I D UA L LIB ER T Y 145 professing to redeem· their notes in specie on demand. It was this system which he had to· comba~and the entire assault of ((Mutual Banking" is upon a demand-note currency.

There being no other currency in the people's mind, he had not to guard against other ideas. Consequently he declared themutual·bank-notes' .independence of hard money in lan guage so absolute and unqualified as to give some color to the latter-day claim made by Henry Cohen that his plan excludes specie-redemption at any· time and under· all cir cumstances. If the passages which Mr. Cohen quotes in an other column are to be construed with all the rigor that he seems f;o de/sire, they absolutely exclude the use of the specie dollar; but that Colonel Greene contemplated no such exclu sion. is undoubtedly shown by his declaration that no paper bill of less than five dollars .·t>hould be issued, in which. case dis¥se of. the specie doUar would mean disuse of all dollars, for the. specie dollar would be the only dollar in existence. The alternative, then, is to construe these passages liberally rather than literally, and in the light of the fact that an essential feature of the Mutual Banking plan is the provision ofa collateral to serve .for the redemption of notes not can celled in the ordinary fashion. Despite the .keen intellectual quality shown in CCMutualBanking" as a whole, it contains here· and •there obviously inexact statements that .will not bear analysis. There is, for instance, the declaration that the mutual bank is by its nature incapable of owing anything, -a. clear absurdity if .vigorously insisted upon insteado£ being interpreted by the context; for Colonel Greene else where defines the issue of· mutual money as an exchange of credits,-anexchange inconceivable between two parties one of whom is by nature incapable of indebtedness. I might take up the cited· passages seriatim, but it is needless, for my general answer covers the ground.

Possibly Mr. Cohen's suggestion that the security for un cancelled notes would be converted by sale partly into bank. :notes•.. and partly into gold, the. former •. to satisfy the .bank's claim and the latter to satisfy the borrower's equity, ·meets my argument that the collateral would have to be converted into gold because of the rights of.· the borrower,-though I have •. some doubts as to· the practicability. of. the plan,-but my argument that the collateral couId not be converted into 146 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y bank-notes unless these bank-notes had first shown a greater power of general circulation than they would be likely to acquire by a mere agreement of mem~ers to receive them in trade regardless of redeemability in specie remains untouched. To be sure, Mr. Cohen urges that the notes will float if enough members join to insure their immediate convertibility into all marketable products; but to assume that a membership of this size and variety can be obtained, and that the non -enforcible agreement of the members to receive the notes in trade would inspire the same confidence in them that would be inspired by an enforcible agreement of the issuer to redeem them in specie, is to beg the question. It is this consideration-the necessity of inspiring confidence in the notes-that makes it desirable that the notes should mature,-that is, be made re deemable by the issuer under definitely-prescribed conditions.

Which brings me to Mr. Tandy's criticism. His error lies not in his logic, which is sound, but in his false premise, namely, that the tendency of the matured note to flow back to the bank is' no greater, and perhaps less, than the tendency of the unmatured note to so flow back. If this were true, then the conditions ultimately resulting would not differ mat~ rially from those obtaining. under a demand-note currency. But it is not true. Most of the mutual banks would prob ably be banks of deposit as well as of issue, and large sums of circulating currency would be constantly passing through their hands, as a result of which they would be able, not only by their individual efforts, but by their associative efforts taking effect through· the clearinghouse, to call in matured notes, paying out in their stead unmatured notes previously paid in by borrowers in cancellation of loans. Mr. Tandy hints, to be sure, that there would be a counter-effort on the outside ·to corner matured notes in the hope of their going to a premium. I do not think this in the least likely, for people seldom execute movements which may be so simply and easily thwarted. It would not take a very expert financier to knock such a corner in the head. Suppose the bank notes were promises to pay in gold, dollar for dollar, thirty days after presentation at maturity or later, but subject to a proviso that all notes presented later than, say, ninety days after maturity should be liable, at the option of the bank, to a discount from the face value at a percentage rising in the INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 147 ratio of the period of delay. How long, in Me. Tandy's opinion, would a corner in· matured notes last under ·such cir cumstances? He has discovered amare's-nest.

GOVERNMENT AND VALUE IN. a letter. to the. London Herald of Anarchy, Mr. J. Greevz Ptsher asserts that HsovernlTIent does not, . and never can, fix· the value of gold or any other commodity'" and cannot even affect ·such vdue except by the ~light additional demand which it creates as a consumer.· It is true that government cannot fix the value of a commodity, because its influence is but one of several factors that combine to govern value. But its' power to atfece value is out. of all proportion to. the ex ten.tof its consumption. Government's consumption of com modities. is an almost· infinitesimal influen~e upon value in compari$on with its prohibitory power. One of the chief factors in the constitution of value· is,. as Mr. Fisher himself states, utility; and. as long as governments exist, utility' is largely .dependent upon· their arbitrary" decrees. When gov ern.rnentprohibits the manuf~cture and sale. of liquor,. does it not thereby reduce the value· of everything that is used in such manu.facture and sale? If government were to allow theatricalperfoqnances on Sundays, would not the value of every building that contains a theatre. rise? Have not we, here in America, just seen the McKinley bill change the value of.·nearlY every article that .the people use? If .government were to decree that all plates shall be made of ·tin, would not the value of tin rise and the value of china fall? Unques tionably .. Well, a precisely parallel thing occurs when gov, ernment decrees that all money shall be made of or issued a'gainst gold· or silver; these metals immediately take on an artificial, government-created value, because of the. new use which arbitrary power enables them to monopolize, and· all other commodities, which are at the sam~ time· forbidden to he.· put to this use, correspondingly lose value. How absurd, then, in view of these indisputable facts, 'to assert that. gov ernment can affect values only in ratio of its consumption!

And yet Mr. Fisher makes this assertion the starting ...pointof alectureto the editoro£the Herald o/Anarchy delivered in 148 IN D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y that dogmatic, know-it-all style which only those are justified in assuming who can sustain their statements by facts and logic. Mr. Fisherreplied, in a letter to Liberty, so Mr. Tucker continued: THE central position taken by Mr. Fi~her at the start that government cannot affect the value of gold or any other com modity except by the slight additional·demand which it cre ates as a consumer he has been forced to abandon at the first onslaught. If government were to allow the opening of thea;;res on Sunday, it would not thereby become a consumer of theatres itself (at least not in the economic sense; for, in the United States, at any rate, our governors always go to the theatre as ((dead-heads"), and yet Mr. Fisher admits that in such a case the value of theatres would immediately rise very greatly. This admission is an abandonment of the po sition taken at first so confidently, and no other considera tion can make it anything else. The fact that competition would soon arise to reduce the value does not alter the fact that for a time this action of government would materially raise it, which Mr. Fisher originally declared an impossibility. But even if such a plea had any pertinence, it could be promptly destroyed by a slight extension of the hypothesis. Suppose government, in addition to allowing the theatres now existing to open on Sunday, were to prohibit the establishment of any additional theatres. Then the value would not only go up, but stay up. It is hardly necessary to argue the matter further; Mr. Fisher undoubtedly sees that he is wrong. The facts are too palpable and numerous. Why, since my com ment of a month ago on Mr~ Fisher's position, it has tran spired that the cost of making twist drills in the United States has been increased five hundred and twenty per cent.

by the McKinley bill. Government cannot affect value, in deed! In the paragraph to which Mr. Fisher's letter is a rejoinder I said that ((when government decrees that all money shall be made of or issued against gold or silver, these metals im mediately take on an artificial, government-created value, beIN D IV I D U ALL I BER T Y 149 cause of the new use which arbitrary power enables them to monopolize." Mr. Fisher .meets this by. attempting ··to belittle the restrictions placed upon the issue .of paper money, as •• if all vitally. necessary liberty. to compete. with the gold-bugs were even now aUowed. Let me ask my opponent one ques tion. Does the law of England allow citizens to form a bank for the .issue of, paper money against· any property that they may see fit to accept as security; said bank perhaps owning no spec~ewhatever; the paper Inoney not redeem.able~n spec~ee:x: cept. at the option of the bank;, the customers of the bank mutually pledging themselves to~ccept the bank's paper in lieu' of gold or silver. coin of the same face value; .the paper being redeemable only at the maturity of the mortgage notes, and then simply by a return of said notes. and a release of the mortgagedproperty,-is such an institution, I ask, allowed by the law of England? If it is, then I have only to say that the working people of England are very great fools not to take advantage of this inestimable liberty, that the editor of the Herald of Anarchy and his comrades have indeed nothirtg to complain of in the matter of finance, and that they had bet ter .turn their attention at once to the organization of such banks as that which I have just described. But I am con vinced·that Mr. Fisher win ·have to answer that these banks are"illegal in England; and in that case I tell him again that the'present value of gold is a monopoly value sustained·.by the exclusive .• monetary privilege given it by government. It may be true, as Mr. Fisher says, that just as· much gold would be used if it did not possess this monopoly. But that has nothing to do ·with the question. Take the illustration that I have already used in this discussion when I said: ulf govern ment were to decree that all plates shall be made of tin, would not the value of tin rise and the value of china fall?" Now, if the supply of tin were limited, and if hearly an the tin were. used in making plates, and if tin Had no other use·0£ great significance, it is quite conceivable that, if the decree prohibiting the use of 'china in making' plates should bewith 7 drawn, the same amount of tin might. continue to be used for the same purpose as before, and yet the value. of tin would fall tremendously in consequence of. the admitted competition of china. And ·similarly, if all property were· to··be .admitted to competition with gold in the matter of representation.in :150 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY the currency, it is possible that the same amount of gold would still be used as money, but its value would decrease no tably,-would fall, that is to say, from its abnormal, artificial~ government-created value, to its normal, natural, open market value.

Mr. Fisher then came back with another contribution to Liberty-in fact, several of them-in which he at tacked the editor a1;1d also Mr. Alfred B. Westrup, whose «Citizens' Money" and ((The Financial Problem" he had just read. Mr. Tucker's reply, therefore, is a defense of his own position and of that of Mr. Westrup as well, and the controversy develops into a discussion of free trade in banking, of currency and government, and of the equal ization of wage and product: I KNOW of no friend of liberty who regards it as a panacea for every ill, or claims that it will make fools successful, or believes that it will make all men equal, rich, and perfectly happy. The Anarchists, it is true, believe that under liberty the laborer's wages will buy back his product, and that this will make men more nearly equal, will insure the industrious and the prudent against poverty, and will add to human hap piness. But between the fictitious claims which Mr. Fisher scouts and the real claims which the Anarchists assert it is easy to see the vast difference.

I do not understand how ccthe unvarying failure of unsound currency enactments" makes the interference of government with finance seem less pernicious. In fact, it drives me to precisely the opposite conclusion. In the phrase, ((concomit ant dwindling of monetary law into a mere specification of truisms," Mr. Fisher repeats his attempt, of which I com plained in the last issue of Liberty, to belittle the restrictions placed upon the issue of paper money. When he has answered the question which I have asked him regarding the English banking laws, we can discuss the matter more intelligently. Meanwhile it is futile to try to make a monopoly seem less than a monopoly by resorting to such a circumlocution as «(system of licensing individuals to carryon certain kinds of INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY lSI trades/'ot to, claim' that" the' m.onopoly of a tool not" only common' but indispensable to all trades is not more, injurious than themonopoly,'of a tool used by only one trade'or a £~W trades.

It 1$ true that if the mass of capitalc~mpetingtorinvest ment were incl::eased, the rate of interest would fall. -Butit is not truethats~arcity of capitalis.the.onlytactor that ~eel1s up-the'rrate of interest? If, I ·were ,.' free "to >~se my capital directly as .a, basis of credit orcurrency,therelie£:froln the necessity,.of borrowing ,.' additional .,capital,,from, others would .decrease,the.borrowing., d~m.and,· and. therefore the rate of in terest. And if, as the Allarchists claim,t~isfreedom to use capital, as a; basis ,of credit· shouldgi~e,an immense impe~us to business, ,and .cQnsequently. cause an itnmense demand, for labor, ,atldc~nseq\lendy' increa,se•productive power, and •con seq~entlyal.lgmentthe a1l1ount of capital, here another ,force wOtlldhe exercised"to.lower ,the rate of i llterest and cause it togra~uaUyvanish. Free trade in, banking does not mean only, unlimited liberty to create debt; '. itmeansal~o'vast1y increased "ability •. to ' 111,eetdebt: ,and, .•,so: acc0tnpanied"the libertYito create ", debt is one of ,the greate~t,' blessings~ ••' ,'It ,.'i5 not, erroneous to label evidence. of debt as money. As ,Col.

Wm. ,',E.••Greene wdl said: UThat is ,money which "does.t~F work of the tool money." When evidence of debtcircul~tes asa "medium .ofexchange, to all intents and ,purposes it is mo~ey••."But, this isofsm~U consequence. The Anarchists do not 'insist on theword,((money." ' Suppose we call such evi" dence ofde1?ecurrencyi(and.surely it is cutrency) ,whatthe,n? How does,thisc~ange of name "affect,the conclusions of th~ ((curl'ency-faadists"! "Not in the least, as tar as I can see'. By the way,it isnotbecomi llg inamanwhohas,not simply one bee in his bonnet~., but a whole swarm of them; to ta:lk flippantly of the. ((fads"· of men whose lives afford unques tionable evidence of their earn.estness. Mr. Fisher seems to think it'· ilih~rentlyitl1possible' to 'use one?sproperty and at the. same timepledgeit.Butwhat,els~ happens when a rnall~after mortgagil\lghis house,co lltinues toJi~e in it? This is "anact\lalevery-dar.occurrence, .ancl mutual banking only see~s, to 111ake it pQ~sible'oneasier terms, __th~ terms that will prevail under competition ., instead .o~ the >te,rms•,that,.do prevail. under ,monopoly. " The man who 152 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY c~lIs this reality an ignis fatuus must be either impudent or ignorant.

Mr. Fisher, in his remark that Uno attempt· is made to show how displacing gold from currency would reduce the price as long as its cost and utility remain what they now are," is no less absurd than he would be if he were to say that no attempt is made to show how displacing flour as an ingredient of bread would reduce the price. of flour as ·long as its cost and utility remain what they now are. The· utility of .flour consists in the fact that it. is an ingredient of bread, and the main utility of,' gold consists in the fact that it is used as .currency . To .talk .of displacing these utilities and at the same time keeping them what they now are is a contra diction in terms, of which Mr. Fisher i,~ .guilty. But Mr. Westrup is guilty of no contradiction at all in claiming that money can be made very much more plentiful and yet main tain its value at the same time that he contends that the pres ent value of money is due to its monopoly or scarcity. For to quote Colonel Greene again: ~tAll money is not the same money. .There is one money of gold, another ,of. brass, another of leather, and·" another of paper; and there is a difference in the glory of these different kinds of money. There is one money that is a commodity, having its exchangeable value determined by the law of.supply and demand, which money may be. called (though somewhat barbarously) merchandise-money; as, for instance, gold, silver, brass, bank-bills, etc.: there is another money, which is not a., c0tnmodity, whose exchangeable value is. altogether .inde pendentof the law of supply anddema l1d, and which may be called mutual money. • . . If Qrdinary bank ..bills represented specie actually existing in the vaults of the bank, no mere is sue or withdrawal of them could affect a fall or rise in the value of money: for every issue of a dollar-bill would corre spond to the locking-up of a specie dollar in the banks' vaults; and every' cancelling of a dollar-bill would correspond to. the issue by the banks of a. specie dollar. . It is by the exercise of banking privileges-that is, by the issue .of ,bills purporting to be, but which are, not, convertible-that' the banks effect a depreciation inth,e price of the silver dollar. It,isthis fiction (by which legalv:alue is assimilated·, to, and becomes, to' all business intents and purposes,actual value ) that enables bankINDIVIDUAL LilB~RTY IS:;' notes to depreciatethe silver dQUar•.•••..•Substitute VERITYin~kf place..otfiC'tion, ·.,eitherby •• penznittingth~ ... baJ;).ksto .issue ••• p.Q more. paper>thantl,1ey haye§p~cieip.. their vaults,()r .l:>yeffect ing\an •• entiredivorce •.··.petweenhank-pap~r and "its •. pretended specieba~is, and .thepow?r ,0£ paper to depreciate .. specie. is atain ••end'i",so long ••• as. the fiction •is•• kept up,.·.the .silY~rdollar iSideprecia ted, and· tends ,toernigratef()f ••.the· .purppse.·.0£ tta'\7clling in .foreign' parts ; hut, the. rnom~nt. the •. fiction is c1estr0}ted,the '. po-wex-p±paperpyer .. 1netalceas~s ... , By .~ts '.;n. trinsic,nature ... spe.cie"is ·'.D.1e17chandi,~eLhaving, its value .•• de-· termined"as •••such,hy.supplyand ·d~lllanc1; hut on .•• the CoD.\'"

tra~r,papermoney .. is,.hy it~··iAtrins~c ••..n.~t'Ure, . not .mercllan dise, but the •• means •.• wherebym.er<;ha119i,se.is .. ~xchallged, •and,. as•. such, 'ought always toQecom.mensurate. in,quality .with .. t~e amount •of •merchandis.e tQbe exchanged, be thataUl0'Up.t great ·orsmaU .••·.•.•. Mutzudmon;ey.. is .measurt?d.by·speC'ie, but.·is in nowa:Ylfssimilated,toit;,an;d .therefqre .it~issue C'anhqve noeffeC'twhatever .·tocause,arise .or}all. in the price of the preeious\metals." .. / «y", ..•.•.•....••.•,'.' ••.•...•" .'. , lJhis·· is"oneo£'. the .most •••'iml'pJ:"tant.truths .~n ·bllanRC,.·.··.rl1l;Q. perfectly .• aecQunts,£or .•.Mr.<;We,stfup.~~positi()l1.. ."Wllenk~ says that •money can. be made very •. much more .plentif ttl.an.4 yet maintain its value, he is .sp~akit1g0f m.u}ualmoney;yv-hen he says· that,;the ·.present,value· 0£ll19ney(jepends up()nmonqply orsfarcity,ne. isspeak.ingof111erC'hanilis~,money.

,.Ass~nsibl~mightone .say to .fvit;·.,Fisher, 'YehQ is. 1l.sta,flch oPJ?onento£-J:.• overnl11el1tpQstalservlce"that .•..'tlle~11l1l1tdla teo effeFtof .,the,.total ,ahste,n~ion ,.of.. govern11ilentfrotn.its iPfo,teST tio~()fthei,ublic .f179111.. the ,rogl.lery o£priva teiwail"'~~J:riers wOlild,be tl1~,~,agreatcrop.(}f£t~shs<;llel11e~"\Vol.lld .offer,tpem selvest()tll~e'~desirQUs,()£ intrl.lsting •. ~ny\oftheir •.• 1e~ters .••t(). oth!rs to car~y. A verylarge proportiono£ the~eschem;es.. possibly-the,inajQrity---'W()pldbe .••ulls0und.". .W"e~l, iwhat: <of it? > Are We pnthis acc()unttogive up :freedom? >No,says Mr.•;fisher .•. 'lflut" then, what is. the ~ot;ce of ,the •consideration,? ..•. ··Mr .•Westt¥p? s •money notonlYii ,~how\> ,tpat. A.,hasgiven ... B a .conditionalititletocertainwealtl!, bu~. guarantees tll~,~,tris, wealthha.s, b~ell preserveq. . That· is, it affords a guaran.tee so nearly perfect that it is. acceptable. If youta~t~1110rt gage,op.ahop~eandtheoWller insures it in your £avqr~~he guarantee.,ag4inst Jossby.:firejsnotp?;1;fec~, .sincethejA~\lt:154 INDIVIDU AL LIBER TY ance company may fail, but it is good enough for practical purposes. Similarly, if B,the bank, advances money to A against a mortgage on the latter's stock of· goods, it is within the bounds of possibility that A will sell the goods and disap pear forever, but he will thus run the risk of severe penalties; and these penalties, coupled with B's caution,make· a guar antee that practically serves. To be sure, Mr. Westrup's money does not assure the holder that the bank will· deliver the borrowed articles on demand, but it does assure him that he can get similar articles or their equivalents on demand from any customers of the bank that have them for sale, because all these customers are pledged to take the bank's notes; to say nothing of the fact that the bank, though not bound to redeem on demand, is bound to redeem as fast as the mort gage notes .mature.

The truisms which Mr. Fisher enunciates so solemnly do not establish the absence of any necessity for enabling all wealth to be represented by money. This necessity is shown by the fact that, when the monetary privilege is conferred upon one form of wealth exclusively, the people have to obtain this form of wealth at rates that sooner or later send them into bankruptcy. The value of gold would be reduced by mutual banking~ because it would thereby be stripped of that exclusive mone tary utility conferred .upon it by the State. The percentage of this reduction no one can tell in advance, anymore than he can tell how much whiskey would fall in price if there were unrestricted. competition in the sale of it. Neither gold nor any other commodity is bought by people who don't want to consume it or in some way cause others to consume it. Gold is in process of consumption when it is in use as currency.

Mutual banking might or might not cause gold to lose its pre-eminence as the most thoroughly constituted value. If it should do so, then some other commodity more constantly demanded and uniformly supplied would take the place of gold as a standard of value. It certainly is unscientific to impart a factitious monopoly value to a commodity in order to make its value steady. . Other. things being equal, the rate of interest is inversely proportional to the residual increment of wealth, for the reaINDIVIDUAL LIBERTY IS5 son that a low.ra1:e of interest (except-when offered to an already bankrupted people). ,makes business actiye,.·,causes. a 1l1ore;.universal.employment •. o£Jabor, and. thereby adds to pro ductive capacity. The residual increment is lessin the United I(in~dom, where interest is low, thanintb.e United Sta1:es~ where.,'interest· is. high, .hecauseother ;.things are not eQllal.

But in either country t~is, incrementwoul~be greater than ~t now is if ,the rateofinterest'wer~ to> fall. 'I .' lfsoldbecatneasabundap.t,a~copper, Jegls1~tiort"if. it cho~~" ~ould maintain. its yaluepy '. decreeing•that .we •should" drink ~nly·. from ·gold g9ble1:s~ ..•...1£•• the •• value were. maintained, .. the tolume,()f money '. ';V0~lqhegreater on. a,.ccountof the<~bun panceo£gold. ThIS Increa.seof volume would lqwer, t~e ... rate Q£ interest. I.A; voluntary custom of sellingprefere;ntially for gold would ~ot;be. a monoply, but there is no such voluntary custom. ]Where cattle are used voluntarilyasel mecliumof exchange, ~hey;are not: ,a monopoly; butw1}ere theryis a law that 0.rtl....y. ~attleshall be so used, they~reamonopdly. .. i·.·.· It .is.·not.in.cumbent on .i\.n,a.rchists••• to .shQw.an atlalogy·.•. be ~W6¢n a law ·to. require the. e~,clusive.~onsutIlPtion,. of.. hand ~ade·bricks .. andanylaw.speci£ying.that ~heword.Donar in ~ Ipolld$pall imply a ••.. certain quantityofgQld. . But. they are Ihound and: ready, to show an analogy' bet.w:eenthe. nrst ..tlamed Ilaw~tldianylaws prohibiting or.ta~ng Jhe issue of notes, 'of Jwha,tever•d~scription, "int~nd:ed, for cirgtllationa$ currency.

IGovernments force people1:() consume gold, in. thesenseth~t Ithey give people n()alternativebu~< thato£ abangoning the use lofmoney. '. When governtIlent swaps off gold for othetcom 111l0diti~s, •it. thereby .consu1l1~s it .in .the economic .s~nse. The I,United•States government .Pllrchases its .gold' alldsilver.It lean hardly he ~aid,however,tllatitpurchases silver in an /open1ll.al;ket, because, being. obliged ,by .law to buy so ·1ll.any imillionseachmonth,it. tlterebycreates.· an artificial market. Again· Mr••.Fisher came'.·.back, ·.in his'· 'characteristic style,. to which" Mr. Tucker replied in the following manner: Mr. Fisher's article is nothing but a string of assertions,.

156 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY most of which, as matters of fact, are untrue. The chief of these untruths is the· statement that in exchanging gold we do not consume it. What is consumption? It is the act of destroying by use or waste. One of the uses of gold---and under the existing financial system· its chief use-is to act as a medium of exchange, or else as the basis of such a medium. In performing this function it wears out; in other words, it is consumed. Being given a monopoly··of this ·use or function, it has an artificial value,-avalue which it would not have if other articles, normally capable of· this function, were not forbidden to compete with it. And these articles suffer from this restriction of competition in· very much the same way that a theatre forbidden to give Sunday performances suffers if its rival is allowed the privilege. Mr. Fisher may deny the analogy as stoutly ashechdoses;it is none the less established.

This analogy established, Mr. Fisher's position falls,-falls as surely as his other position has fallen: the position that gov ernment cannot affect values, which he at first laid down with as much contemptuous assurance as if no one could deny it without thereby proving himself a born fool. So there is no need to refute the rest of the assertions. I will simply enter a specific denial of some of them. It is untrue that gold is not withdrawn from the market to raise its price. It is untrue that the gold mines are kept open principally to sup ply the arts. It is untrue that, if· gold were twice as dear or twice as cheap, bankers would not lose or gain; the chief business of the banker is· not to buy· and. sell gold, but to lend it. And I believe it to be untrue-though ... here I do not speak of what I positively know-that English law permits the establishment of such banks as Proudhon, Greene, and Spooner proposed. :TvIr. Fisher certainly should know more about this than I, but I doubt his statement, first,because I have found hiITl in error so often; second" because nine out of ten Massachusetts lawyers will tell you with supreme con fidence that there is no law in Massachusetts prohibiting the use of notes and· checks as currency (yet there is one of many years' standing, frained in plain terms, and often have I astonished lawyers of learning and ability by showing it to them) ; and, third, because I am sure that, if such banks were legal in England, they would have been started long ago.

INDIV/ID.UAL LIBERTY 157 Another Jo~~ letter from Mr. /Fisherhere intervened andtheeditot of Liberty took up each point and care "'fully reJ>lied<to it:. ..A l~bQt;er'~ prodtict •is>suchportionof fhe/va1ue ()fthat which he delive+s~o~4e~ons,ti~er aSihisowll labor has con. tributed. .To ex:pect; the laborer's wagestohuythis value ba.ck isto/expe<;tno more than simple equity. If ~0rn.eoth~t" laborer hascolltributed •... to .• th<r total ,valuep£the •.•. delivered article. byrtnakillg atopl., which>has peen used in. its.•. map.ufa~ t:qte"by.theJaborer'who .delivers.it, .then.t;he. wages of. the, Ja horerwho makes .tpe, tool .••.~hould,.also.,.buyback·his product ordgeproportiQn .ofvalue,·and ·w()uld.doso under .. liberty. But his portion of .t;he value and therefore his wage "\V0\.Jld be me~sured by the·. wear and tear 'Which thetoQl hadsufferefi. in •this •.single •act •• of· .manufacture, .,and npt .. byany suppose~ hen,ent·conferred ·.hy·t4e.· use •. o£tlJe \tool Qver an4 •. above its wear and .tear ..,.. In., other •• warps, the ',. tOQl..maker'W01l1dsimply sell that portion •()f,the tool destroyed in the>act ofmanufac tureinsteadof lending. the' tool .and •.receiving. it again .,ac companied bya' value. which would more than restore it to itsorig~nalcondition~ .....••..Mr•.. Fisper's ••• intet;Br~tatio~ rests,. fur th~rmore, on. a mis.c()n,ceptionq£ th~ .ter~wages. '.' \Vllena far~ethire~ a day-lap()r~rforadoll;lrad~Yiap.-dhis board, th~ip()a1"dis;as tr141y a part of the'rages~s istlle (folIar; aJ;1d.

when 1 saythattlJe laborer' s~agesshoul~puyback his prod uet,Illlean •. that,•.the.total. a111-()ullt.whi~11 ...•hereceives .for his labor, whether in advance or syl;>sequently,and. whether .con'" sM111e4.before.•. oraftertlle .' perfopn~nc~,of ·'hislabor, should be equal in market <va1lJe to his totaL contribution ·tothe. prod uctupon .which heybest()yr$llis,labor •.••·1s·.this ·.exp~s~ing t.oo much? If SQ, 'rnight .laskt() '\Vholll.theexc~ss of product over wage' should equitably go? Everyman who postpones qonsl4tnP~iontakesarisk.••1£ he :keepscQ111111oditri.e.~ -Which he•. d~s;qot,wishto .•·•.constUne,·they may.perish·Qll •• his .• hallds... If .he:exchanges .... the1l1 for.gold~ .. !h.e goldr1l1Clydeclineill value.. If.heexchal1gesthe1l1 for govern men,t••,paperpr()~sing gold.on .demand, the.papermay. decline iJarvalt..e., And it. heexchange,sthelll.formutual.moJ;1,ey, .this 158 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY transaction, like the others (though in. a smaller degree, we claim), has its element of risk. But, as .long as merchants seem to think that they run less risk by temporarily placing their valuables at the disposal of others than by retaining pos session of them, the advocates of mutual money will no more concern themselves about giving them recompense beyond the bare return of· their valuables unimpaired than the advocates of gold and government paper will concern themselves to insure the constancy of the one or the solvency of the other.

As for the ttsomething out of nothing" fallacy, that is shared between God and the Shylocks, and, far from being enter tained by the friends of free banking, is their special abomina tion. CtCredit without remuneration!" shrieks Mr. Fisher in horror. But, if credit is reciprocal, why should there be remuneration? CtDebtwithout cost!" But, if debt is recipro cal, why should there be cost? tCDnlimited or very plentiful money without depreciation!" But if the contemplated ad dition to the volume of currency contemplates in turn a broadening of the basis of currency, why should there be. depreciation? Free and mutual banking means simply reci procity of credit, reciprocity of debt, and an extension of the currency basis. It is the especial claim of free banking that it will increase production. To make capital· fluent is to make business ac tive and to keep· labor steadily employed· at wages which will cause a tremendous effective demand for goods. If free bank ing, were only a picayunish attempt to distribute more equita bly the small amount of wealth· now produced, I would not waste a moment's energy on it.

I am interested in securing the' greatest possible liberty for banking so that I may profit by the greater competition that would then be carried on between those .born with a genius for finance. But what about Proudhon, Mr. Fisher? He was no amateur. He could value, not only a horse, but a rail road, the money kings utilized his business brains, his Manual for a Bourse Speculator served them as a guide, and, when he started his Banque du Peuple, it immediately assumed sucb proportions that Napoleon had to construct a crime for which to clap him into jail in order to save the Bank of France from this dangerous competitor. The suppression of Proudhon's bank was a coercion of the market. And in this country atINDIVIDUAL 'LIBEltTY 159 temptafteratternpt has" been made to introduce •credit money outside .,of goverllment ." and, national. bank ••,channels, ,•and.,the promptness of suppre~sion. 'has.always been, proportionaJ to •the success of •• the ". attempt.

I.te11 Mr. Fisher.,again that •it. is; a ',. crime. to issue, and cir culate as currency a note promising ,to deliver iron atacer taintiine. I know that it is a crime in this country, and I be lieve that the laws of England. contain restrictionsthatoc co1rtpli$hv1~tually., the s:nne result. There,is no contradiction ,between mypositio ll,••and •Greene's. Gr~ne. beld, as, I hold,.that the, existing m()nopoly imparts' an artificial value to"gold, and, that the abolition. of the monopoly wo~ld •take '.away this .•,artificial" value. '.·.But,he'also held, '.asI hol~, ,that"',after .' this reduction of '. value had. been effected, theyariations.,in .the volume o£.mutual.'money ,would 'b~,independent· of,· the price of •specie. Inotherwords,thisloeduc.., tion'of •• the'value of, gold' ,from" the artifi.cial~o',· thenoJ;maI pointwiH .,be effected by ,the,equalliberty' g~ven .,'.to other c~mmodities to serve ,as'·a basis.o£'currency;but,. this~iberty having been granted and having taken effect, the issue of mu"

tual moneyagainstithese. ,commodities, each.·note being:based on a, specific portion, of"them,".cannot affect ,the value ,of any of ••. thesecommodities,of. which gold is one. ," L leis .no answer to,the charge.of, monopoly to say ,', that any ,one can.huyand s.ellgoldcoin.Noonedeniesthat., The monopoly complained of is this,-thatonlyholdersof ,gold, (and;fihthiscountry, of government bonds ):can use tneirproperty ascurreQ.cy,or asa basisi of 'currency •.••.•'. Suchamonop()ly •has >eyen,moreef feet in enhancing ,the price of gold ,than would a monopoly that snouldallow, only certain persons to deal in .gold. The price of gold is determined. less by the . number of persons dealingin it than by the ratio of the total supply to the total demand. The mono,poly that the Anarchists complain of is mollopoly that increases"the demand ,for ,gold by giving it the currency function to' theexclusionofoth~rco111modities. If my whiskeyiHustration isn't satisfactory, I will change it. , If whiskey were the onlyalchoholic drink allowed to be used as a bey~rage, it would command a ,higher price than. it commands now. I should then tell Mr. Fisher that the. value bfwhiskey was artificial and that free rum wou.ld reduce it to its normal point. If he should then ask me what the normal point was, 160 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY I should answer that I had no means of knowing. If he should respond that the fall. in whiskey resulting from free rum ((would be limited to such relinquishment of profit as would be forced upon the dealers by competition," I· should acquiesce with the remark that the distance. from London to Liverpool is equal to the distance from Liverpool to· London.

It is Mr. Fisher's analogy, not mine, that is false and inapplicable. The proper analogy is not hetween gold and the commodities carried, hut between gold and the vehicle in which they are carried. The cargo of peaches ·that rots on its way from California to New England may not heeconomi cally consumed (though for my life I can't see why such consumption isn't as economic as the tipping of silver into the Atlantic by the United States government, which Mr. Fisher considers .purely economic), but at any rate the wear of the car that carries the cargo is an instance of economic con sumption.Now the gold that goes to California to pay for those peaches. and comes back to New England to pay for cotton cloth, and thus goes back and forth as constantly as the railway car and facilitates exchange equally with the rail... way car and wears out in the process just as the· railway car wears out, is in. my judgment consumed precisely as the rail way car is consumed. That only is a complete product,Mr.

Fisher .. tells. us, which is in the hands ofaperson who applies it to the direct gratification of some· personal craving. I suppose Mr. Fisher will not deny that a railway car is a com plete product. But if it can be said to be in the hands of a person who applies it to the direct gratification of some per sonal .craving, then the same can be· said of gold. HENRY GEORGE AND INTEREST When Henry George was conducting his Standard some of his correspondents inveigled him into a discussion of the question of interest, in which he attempted to prove that interest is a vital reality apart from· the money monopoly. The editor of Liberty at once took issue with him there: INDIVID U At L.IBER.TY 161 TI-J2E'. STANDAR.D now acknowledges that uthe theory of in.. terestasp~opoundedbY,Mr.George has ..•. beefi.more severely and. plausibly criticized than •. any. other phase.of· theecono1llic probl~m .as hepresehts it.'" When we consider that •George regards it as aneconomicJa-w thatin;eJ:es: variesi llv1ersely wi~hso importan.t. a thing as rent, we see that .hecan~otcon..

sistendy. treat' as unimportant. any ((plausible"·•• argument •.'·urged insu~port .of.·the theory thatinteres,t' V~1?iesprincip~lly, ·.not withrent,hu1;withth.eeco,Jao1U~c<concl~t~onsar~sing:frolna monopoly ·•. of•.the .·currency~ It·appears.that ··aH·the.,·trouble,•. of·••. the •••• enemies'o£ •interest growsotitof their view •• of,it as exclusively incidentalto bor rowingandlendifig,.whereas interestonl'orrowedcapitalis itsel£.uincidentaltorealinterest," .• which is' Hthe increase that capital yields irrespective of borrowing and lending. ".' ·.Thisin~ crease, Mr. George claims, is ··.the.workof tilrne,and from ·this premise. he reasons•• as.follows: uThe·laborer.who has··.capital·.ready.when}t,iswanted, .• and thus,··by saving time in making it, •increases production, ~ill get .andpughttoget someconsideration,~higher 'wages,. if YQuchoose,or interest, as we call it,. just, as: the skilful J?rinter •• who,sets6.£teen .• hundredems .·anihourwill •get ..•. more foranihour's;workthan.the less skilful printer whosetsol11y a;-thousand... In. the ,one case greater power due .to~kill"andin the other •. greater. pOMrerduetocapital" produce, greater .results iUf'a.giventime; and ,in:neither ..• case istheincreasedcompen sation 'adeductionfr0111. the earnings of other ,men."

'>ToLmakethisanalogyaJairone. itn;tust be assumed that skill is a product of 'l~bor"that •••it .c.an be [bought .,.andsold, and that. its price is subject 'to .the influence,.o~ •competition ; 'ot~er wise it· furnishes no<paraUeLto capitaL With theseassump tipns the opponent .•. of interest eagerlyseizes upontheanal~gy as. entirely .• favorahle. to ·his.•·.own.positio;nanddes,tructive· of ~r.•.George's. . If •• theskilfulprinterPfoducedhis skill and call. sell it, .and if, other ,tnen.~an,produc~ similars~ill:a~d. sell .it, the price that ,will be.paid£or it· vfill.be 'limited,eunder free' competition, by thecost,ofproduc#ion,and will bear no relati()n, to .the••.extra.,.fiYe.\hU1ldred~:ems +n';hour.•,.·The··.case.is p~ecisely the. same with ,. c.apital~; :Where~here '. is freecompeti ti()n in the .manufactur! and sale: of sl'ades, •the price of a spade wilLbe ,goYern~d by the •costo£ itfproduction, and· not 162 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY by the value of the extra potatoes which the spade will enable its purchaser to dig. Suppose, however, that the skilful printer enjoyed a monopoly of skill. In that case, its price would no longer be governed by the cost of production, but by its utility to the purchaser, and the monopolist would ex act nearly the whole of the extra five hundred ems, receiving which hourly he would be able to live for the rest of his life without ever picking up a type. Such a monopoly as this is now enjoyed by the holders of capital in consequence of the currency monopoly, and this is the reason, and the only rea son, why they are able to tax borrowers nearly up to the limit of the advantage which the latter derive from having the cap ital. In other words, increase which is purely the work of time bears a price only because of monopoly. Abolish the monop oly, then, and what becomes of Mr. George's «real interest"

except as a benefit enjoyed by all consumers in proportion to their consumption? As far as the owner of the capital is concerned, it vanishes at once, and Mr. George's wonderful distinction with it. He tells us, nevertheless, that the capitalist's share of the results of the increased power which capital gives the laborer isCCnot a deduction from the earnings of other men." Indeed! What are the normal earnings of other men? Evidently what they can produce with all the tools and advantages which they can procure in a free market without force or fraud. If, thert, the capitalist, by abolishing the free market, compels other men ·to procure their tools and advantages of him on less favorable terms than they could get before, while it may be better for them to come to his terms than to go without the capital, does he not deduct from their earnings? But let us hear Mr. George further in, regard to the great value of time to the idler.

uSuppose a natural spring free to all, and that Hodge carries a pail of water from it toa place where he can build a fire and boil the water. Having hung a kettle and poured the water into it, and arranged the fuel and started the fire, he has by his labor set natural forces at work in a certain direction; and they are at work for him alorie, because without his previous labor they would not be at work in that direc tion at all. Now he may go to sleep, or run off and play, or amuse himself in any way that he pleases; and when an INDIVIDUAL LIBER.TY 163 hour-a pedod'oftime--shall have elapsed, he •will have, in,st~a.d<ofa.pail •. of •. cold ••. water, .a'pot .of••·boiling. water. ··18 there no •difference·in value ,between thathoiIing water and ~hecoldwater •• of'.an hour before? Would he excltange the potQf .·boiling·.water ·fora pail oicold. '\Vater,-.even. though the< CQlq. ,water .•.were' ··in•••••the .pot' and .•th~ 'fire started? Of cQUi"se·not,andno.onewouldexpect lUm.·to..•·• ,And "yet .·be tween the time. when the fire is .started. and the time when the.waterhoils he does no work. .Towhat~ then, ~stha~ difI~rence in value due? Isitnot.clearly due to the element of time? . Why does .Hodge demand mote than a pail of coldwater. for the pot of boiling water if it is not that the ultifflateobjectof hisoriginallabor .......the making of tea, for exa11'lple-isnearer complete than· it •wa~ an hour •. hefore, and that ..•an even exchange of boiling water ••.. for cold.water would dellly him aJ:l hour, to whichhewilLnot submit unless he is paid forit?'And>whyisPodge willing to give more than a pail of col4 water for the pot of boiling water, if it is not that it gives him the benefit of •. an hour's. time in' production, ...• and thus. incrells.es his '.• productive power very much as •greater skillwould~.. AndjfPodgegives· to Hodge more than a•• pail o£901d wat~r for .thepot ofbQiling w-ater, does Podge lose any·thing .' that he" had,orHodgegaillanything •. t~,t •he .had not? ,.. No. •... The effect .of thetra:nsaction is a.transferJor a considf!ration.of the advantage in point of time that Hodge h~d, to Podge .• who had not,. as if .askilful~011lPositor should~ if he ..couldf sell.his skill.to .,~ •. l~ss·. skilfulmember>of the craft."

We wHl,.Jooka .·little into ,this ·economic •• Hodge,-Podge. The illustration is vitiated from beginning to end by the n.eglect()f·.the most .hn.,por~antquestion involved in it, namely,whetherliodge's idleness during the. hour required ·for 'the boiling of•. th.e water is a.matter of .choice.or.·of·necessity••'..•'It waSlJecessary to leave this out in order to give time the credit of boiling the .water ... Let .us notleave it out, and < see what willco~eof. it. .' .IfUodge's .idleness is a matter. of .. netessity, it is equivalent, from the economic standpoint, tolabor,and couJlts .as labor in .the.price·.oftheboiling .·.water~ .A.·store keeper may spend only nve hours in waiting .onhiscustomers, but, as he has to spend anothernve hours in waiting for them, lle.. gets ipaistPy them for ten, ho1.trs'.·Xabor.•. His .. five....• hours' idleness'~QlJnts <as labor, ,bepatlse,to a~comm.odatehis cus"

164 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY \tomers, he has to give up what he could produce in those five hours if he could labor in them. Likewise, if Hodge, when boiling water for Podge, is obliged to spend an hour in idleness, he· will charge Podge for the hour in the price which he sets on the boiling water. But it is rIodge himself, this disposition, of himself, and not the abstraction, time, that gives the water its exchangeable value. The abstraction,. time, is as truly at work when Hodge is bringing the water from the spring and starting the fire as when he is asleep waiting for the water to boil; yet Mr.· George would not dream of at tributing the value. of .the. water after it had been brought from the spring to the element of time. He would say that it was due entirely to the labor,of Hodge. Properly speaking, time does ·not work at all,but, if the phrase is to be insisted ;on in economic discussion, it can be admitted only with some such qualification as the following: The services of time are venal only when rendered through human forces; when ren;..

dered exclusively through the forceso£ nature, they are gr~ tuitous. That time does not give the boiling water any exchangeable value becomes still more evident when we start from the hypothesis that·. Hodge;s .idleness, ·instead of being·a matter of necessity, isa matter of choice. In that case; if Hodge choos.es to, be idle, and still tries, in selling the boiling water to. Podge, to charge him.· for this unnecessary idleness, the enterprising Dodge will step' up and offer boiling water to Podge ata price .lower than Hodge's, knowing ,that he can afford to do so by performing some productive labor while waiting for the water. to boil, instead of loafing like 'Hodge. The effect of this will be that Hodge himself will go to work productively, and then will offer Podge a better bargain than Dodge has proposed, and so· competition between Hodge and Dodge will go on until the price of the boiling water to Podge shalL fall to the value of the labor expended by either Hodge or Dodge in bringing the water from the spring and starting the fire. Here, then, the exchangeable value of the boiling water which· was· said to be due to time has disappeared, and yet it takes just as much time to boil the water as it did in the .first place.

Mr. George gets intodifticulty in discussing this' question of the increase of capital simply· because he continually loses IN DIVID U.A.L LIB ERTY I6S sight .of the fact thatcOmpetidon lowers prices to the cost of production, and thereby distributes thisso.-called·rproduct·· of capital among the whole people. .He does,ll,0tsee that capitai in'the hands of labor.isbutthe utilization ofa natural force or opportunity, just as landis ,in the hands oflabor , ,and that iti$ as proper in the one case as in the other tnatthe. benefits o£suchutilizationof natural.forcesshouldbeenjoyed by the wftole..bodY .' OfCOl1sumers;;·. Mr....Georgectruly says that rent .. ~s thepriceofrnonopoly. Suppose,..'now, ·.that. some· one should;;,answer <him tnus:You misconceive; you clearly have leasing exclusively in mind, and. suppose :an unearned ,bonus for' a lease,whereas,retit of leas.ed·.landis .'. merely ,incidentral··to·.·.. real rent,which is. the 'superiority inJ0cation .' or' fertility .. 0£ .one:piece.o£ ..·land over another,irlespectiiVeo£ Jeasing.<:Mr. George.would i laugh '.at suchanargument,.i£ :offered,in justification of the receipt-and . enjoyment of unearned'; increment or economic" rentt b}11the landlord. But'he .··himsel£,m~kesan eq/lmUy.. ridiculousamd pr~,cisely., paraHeLargllm.entin Gerence·ofc:the'usurerwnenhe Ha~$",;.inanswerto\th.ose""",hoassert,that in'tere~t is the price.,of n1onopoly:uYa'g:in~soQnceive; •·.. youclearlyha~e . borrowing and lending exclusively''.' in '. mind, and suppaseain.uneatned bOnus' £01" ,a . loan, ,whereas.•. 'inter~st· on borrowed .,·capital is merely,inciaental torealinterest, which is the increase that c'a~it;a'l -yields,irrespectiveo£ ,borrowing Jt.nd lending."

The truth in both c.ases,is'juSt this; that nature fU1"llishes '1'l'ta~ immense t017ces with which to work, in' the shape of land and capital, that '. ina, s'tate of .... freedom these forces benefit each il1;div:idual'ito ·.theex~ent,that'he ·.. avails'·.. himsel~.'of'them~ ,andthat,,)!uy :man~or class ,getting; a m(i)nopoly o:feither or both will 'P¥t:a,llothermen ·in subjection and liveirI' luxurY' on'the products·o£.theirJabor.B.l1ttoijustify,a'1l1onopoly of .eithetl;Qf.th~se\fQrqes·bytntk:existenceo£;theforce' itself, or ·if1Zo'~u:gue\;thtltwithout'a.tnonopolyo£itany individualrlcoultl get",ap..inco~eby .lending i'tinstead ·:of'·.by working withjt~>is ,eq1Jlal1yabsurd';whetnetthe argumel1t',he 'resorted to ,in the ·case.of:land' Qr in the case of capital,. in the case Qf.rellt orin tli~case of~f1t:erest...··If any Qn~ chooses to;calL tneaclvantages 'of:t4hese.£o~¢esto mankind rent in one caseandiriterest, dn:the gtheJ7~ Idottotka()wc that; there is 'any serious··0bj:e4Ztionto.his dbin8··$Ot;t~~~Yide~lhewin;Jjetnemberthatin.·.·p;racticalecoinomic 166 INDIVIDU AL LIBER TY discussion rent stands for the absorption of the advantages of land by the landlord,· and interest for the absorption of the advantages of capital. by the usurer.

The remainder of Mr. George's article rests entirely upon the time argument. Several new Hodge-Podge combinations are supposed by way of illustration, but in none of them is there any. attempt to justify interest except as a reward of time. The inherent absurdity of this justification having been demonstrated above, all that is based upon it falls with it. The superstructure is a logical ruin; it remains only to clear away the debris. Hodge's boiling water is made a type of all those products of labor which afterwards increase in utility purely by natural forces, such as cattle,corn,etc.; and it may be admitted that, if time would add exchangeable value to the water while boil ing, it would do the same to corn while growing, and cattle while multiplying. But that it would do so under freedom has already been disproved. Starting from this, however, an attempt is made to find in it an excuse for interest on pro ducts which do not improve except as labor is applied to them, and even on money itself. Hodge's grain, after it has been growing for a month, is. worth more than when it was first sown; therefore Podge, the shovel-maker, who s'upplies a market which it takes a month· to reach, is entitled .to more pay for his shovels at the end of that month than he would have been had he sold them on the spot immediately after production; and therefore the banker who discounts at the time of production the note of Podge's distant cus tomer .' maturing .a month later, thereby advancing ready money to Podge, will be entitled, at the end of the month, from Podge's customer, to the extra value which the month's time is supposed to have added to the shovels.

Here Mr. George, not only builds on a rotten' foundation, but he mistakes foundation for superstructure. Instead of reasoning· from Hodge to the banker he should have reasoned from the banker to Hodge. His first inquiry should have been how much, in the absence of a monopoly in the banking business,. the banker could get for discounting for Podge the note of his customer; from which he could· then 'have ascertained how much extra' payment Podge could get for hi~ month's delay in the shovel' transaction, or Hodge for the INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY' {67 services of time in· ripening his grain. He would ,then have -discovered that the hanker, who invests little or no capital of his own, and, therefore, lends none to his customers, since the security which they. furnish him· constitutes the capital upon which he operates, is forced, in. the absence of, moneymo nopoly, to reduce the price of his services to lahor cost, which the statistics of the. banking business show to.be much less .than one per cent. . As this .. fraction .••of one per .cent.

rept.'esents sim.ply the b~nker1$ w:tges :tnd incident:tl ~xpenses" and.is not payment for the> use of. capital, the element of interest aisappears from his .transactions. But,.if Podge can borr~w .• money from t~e banker without .. interest, so can Podge's customet; therefore, should ••Podge attempt to exact from his custom.er remuneration for the .month's delay, the latte~· would .at once borrow the money· and pay Podge spot cash.J Furthermore Podge, knowing this, and being able to get ready money easily himself, and. desiring, as. a good man o£,lbusiness, to suit his customer's convenience, .would make no I sllch •attempt. .So Podge's. interest is gone as well as the baJi.1ter's. Hodge, th,en, is the only usurer left. ,But is any on~ •so innoce~tas to suppose that Dodge,or Lodge, or Mqdge will long continue to pay Hodge more for his grown gr~in than his sown grain, after any or all of them can get lanp free of rent and money free of interest, and thereby forbefime to work for them as well as for Hodge. Nobody who'can get the services of time for nothing will·be such. a fool as to pay Hodge for them. Hodge, too, must say farewell' to· his interest as soon as the two great.monopolies of land and money are abolished. The rate olinterest on money fixes the rate of interest·on. all ,other capital the production a/which is subject to competition, and· when the former disappears the latter disappearswith it.

'.' Presumably to make his readers thinkth.at he has given due consideration to the important principle just.·elucidated, Mr. •George adds, just after his· hypothesis of the banker's transaction with· Podge: ubi c0t.1rse there is .. discount ana discount. I ,am. speaking of a legitimate economic banking transaction. But frequently bank discounts are nothing more than taxation, due to· the choking up of free exchange, in consequence of which an institution that controls the common medium of exchange 168 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY can impose arbitrary conditions upon producers who must immediately use that common medium." The evident purpose of the word Hfrequently" here is to carry the idea that, when a bank discount is a tax imposed by monopoly of the medium of exchange, it is simply a some what common exception to the general rule of ((legitimate economic banking transactions." For it is necessary to have such a general rule in order to sustain the theory of interest on capital as a reward of time. The exact contrary, however, is the truth. Where money monopoly exists, it is the rule that bank discounts are taxes imposed' by it, and when, in conse quence of peculiar and abnormal circumstances, discount is not in the nature of a tax, it is a rare exception. The aboli- ' tion of money monopoly would wipe out discount as a tax.

and, by adding to the steadiness of the market, make the cases where it is not a tax even fewer than now. Instead of legitimate, therefore, the banker's transaction with Podge, being exceptional in a free money market and a tax of the or dinary discount type in a restricted money market, is illegiti mate if cited in defence of interest as a normal economic factor. In the conclusion of his article Mr. George strives to show that interest would not enable its beneficiaries to live by the labor of others. But he only succeeds in showing, though in a very obscure, indefinite, and intangible fashion,-seemingly afraid to squarely enunciate it as a proposition,-that where there is no monopoly 'there will be little or no interest. Which is precisely our contention. But why, then, his long article? If interest will disappear with monopoly, what will become of Hodge's reward for his time? If, on the other hand; Hodge is to be rewarded .for his mere time, what will reward him save Podge's labor? There is no escape from this dilemma. The proposition, that the man who for time spent in idleness receives the product of time employed in labor is a parasite upon the body industrial is one which an expert necromancer like Mr. George may juggle with before an audi ence of gaping Hodges and Podges, but can never successfully dispute with men who understand the rudiments of political economy.

INDIVIDUAL LIBERT.Y I 69: YARIOUSMONEY SCHEMES The Greenbackers "\yete always a fair target for Lib erty's shafts of satire and ridicule, but there were many other money schemes, both fiat and other, that drew its fire-and not infrequently its commenda~ion. Sev eral of. these are here subjected to •analysis and criticism by •Libcrty"s editor:, THE •persistent way in which Greenbackers dodge argument on the. money question is.'very' tiresome to a reasoning mortal. Let an Anarchist give a. Greenbacker his idea' ofa good cur :rencyin the issue of which no government has any part, and it is ten to one that he will-answer:' ((Oh, that's not money. It isn't legal tender. Money is that thing which the supreme law. of the land declanes, to be legal tender for debts in the country where that law is supreme." Brick Pomeroy maeJe such an answer to Stephen Pearl Andrews recently, and appeared to think that he had said something final. Now, in' the· :first place., this definition is not. correct, for that is money which performs the functions of money, no matter who issues it. But even if it were correct, of what earthly consequence could it .be? Names are :nothing. Who cares whether the Anarchistic currency .be called money •.or something else? Would it make· exchange easy?· Would it make production active? Would it measure prices accurately? Would· it distribute wealth honestly?

Those are the questions to be asked concerning it; not whether it meets the arbitrary definition adopted by a given school. , A system of. :finance capable of . supplying 'a currency satis L fying the above requirements is a solution of what is generally , known as the money question; and Greenbackers mayas,.well ~ quit now as later trying to bind people to this fact by paltry ; quibbling with words. , But after thus. rebuking Brick Pomeroy's evasion of Mr. andrews, something needs to be said in amendment of Mr. '. Andrew's. position as·.• stated by him in an admirable article (on uThe Nature of Money," published in the New York J.70 IN DIVIDU AL LIBE R TY Truth Seeker of March 8, 1884. Mr. Andrews divides the properties of money into essentials, incidentals, and acciden tals. The essential properties of money, he says,-those in the absence of which it is not money whatever else it may have, and in the possession of which it is money whatever else it may lack,-are those of measuring mutual estimates in an exchange, recording a commercial transaction, and inspiring confidence in a promise which it makes. All other properties of money Mr. Andrews considers either incidental or acciden tal, and among the accidental properties he mentions the security or ~~collateral" which may back up and guarantee money.

Now as an analysis made for the purpose of arriving at a definition, this is entirely right. No exception can be taken to it. But it is seriously to be feared that nearly every person who reads it will infer that, because security or ((collateral" is an accidental feature of money, it is an unimportant and well-nigh useless one. And that is where the reader will make a great mistake. It is true that money is money, with or without security, but it cannot be a perfect or reliable money in the absence of security; nay, it cannot bea money worth considering .in this age. The advance from barter to unsecured money is a much shorter and less important step logically than that from unsecured money to secured money. The rude vessel in which primitive men first managed to float upon the water very likely had all the essentials of a boat, but it was much nearer to no boat at all than it was to the stanch, swift, and sumptuous Cunarder that now speeds its way across the Atlantic ina week. It was a boat, sure enough; but not a boat in which a very timid or even mod erately cautious man would care to risk his life in more than five feet of water beyond swimming distance from the shore.

It had all the essentials, but it lacked a great many acci dentals. Among them, for instance, a compass. A compass is not an essential of a boat,· but it is an essential of satis factory navigation. So security is not an essential of money, but it is an essential of steady production and stable commerc,e. A boat without a compass is almost sure to strike upon the rocks. Likewise money without security is almost sure. to precipitate the people using it into general bankruptcy. When products can be hJ.df~}r the writi.ng of promises and the INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 171 idea gets abroad that such promises are good money whether kept or not, the pronliso:s are very likely to stop producing; and, if the process goes on long enough, it will be found at the end that there are plenty of promises with which to buy, but that there is nothing left to be bought, and that it will require an infinite number of promises to buy an infinitesimal amount of .nothing. .1£, .. however, people find. that their promises will not be accepted unless accompanied by evidence .0£ an inten tion and ability to keep thelTI, and if this evidence is kept definitely before all through some system of organiz'~d credit; the promisors will actively bestir. themselves to ·create the means .0£ keeping their promises; and the free circulation of these promises, far from checking production, will vastly stimulate it, the result being, not bankruptcy, but universal wealth. A money thus secured is fit for civilized people.

Any other money, though it have all the essentials, belongs to barbarians, and is hardly fit to buy the Indian's dug-out. The introduction in congress by Leland· Stan:ford of a bill proposing to issue one hundred millions or more of United States notes to holders of agricultural lap.d, said notes to be secured by first mortgages on such land and to bear two per cent. interest, is one of the most notable events of this time) and its significance is increased· by the statement of Stanford!, in his speech supporting the. bill, that its provisions will probably be· extended ultimately. to other kinds of property~ This bill is pregna~t with the economics (not the .politics) of Anarchism. It contains the germ of the social revolution. It provides a system of governmental mutual banking. If it 'Were possible to honestly and efficiently execute its provisions, it would have only to be extended to other kinds of property and to gradually lower its rate of interest from two per cent.

(an eminently safe figure to begin with) to one per cent., or One half of one per cent., or whatever figure might be found sufficient to cover the cost of operating the system, in order to steadily and surely transfer a .good three-fourths of the in come of'idle capitalists to the pockets of the wage-workers of the country. The authofof this bill is so many times a mil.. lionaire that,even if every cent of his income were to be cut off, his principal would still be sufficient to· support his family tor generations to come, but it is none the less true that he 172. INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY has proposed a measure which, with the qualifications alrea<ly specified, would ultimately make his descendants either pau pers or toilers instead of gigantic parasites like himself. In short, Leland Stanford has indicated the only blow (consid ered solely in its economic aspect) that can ever reach capital ism's heart. From his seat in the United States Senate he has told the people of this country, in effect, that the funda mental economic teaching reiterated by Liberty from the day of its first publication is vitally true and sound.

Unhappily his bill is vitiated by the serious defect of governmentalism. If it had simply abolished all the restric tions and taxes on banking, and had empowered all indi viduals and associations to do just what its passage would em power the government to do, it would not only have been significant, but, adopted by congress, it would have been the most tremendously and beneficially effective legislative mea sure ever recorded on a statute book. But, as it is, it is made powerless for good by the viru-s of political corruption that lurks within it. The bill, if passed, would be' entrusted for execution either to the existing financial cabal or to some other that would become just as bad. All the beneficent results that, as an economic measure, it is calculated to achieve would be nearly counteracted, perhaps· far more than counteracted, by the cumulative evils inherent in State ad ministration. It deprives itself, in advance, of the vitalizing power of free competition. If the experiment should be tried) the net result would probably be evil. It would fail, disas trously fail, and the failure and disaster would be falsely and stupidly attributed to its real virtue, its economic cha..racter.

For perhaps another century .free banking would have to bear the odium of the evils generated by a form of govern mental banking more or less similar to it economically. Some bad name would be affixed to the Stanford notes, and this would replace the assignat, the cCwild cat," and the cCrag baby," as a more effective scarecrow. While hoping, then, that it may never pass, let us never theless make the most of its introduction by using it as a text in our educational work. This may be done in one way by showing its economic similarity to Anarchistic finance and by disputing the astounding claim of originality put f0rward by Stanford. In his Senate speech of May 2.3, he said: cCThere INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 173 is no analogy between this.· scheme for a government of 65,000,000 people, with its boundless resources, issuing its money, secured directly by at least $2 for $I, on the best possible security that could be desired, and any other financial proposition that has ever been suggested." If Stanford said this •••honestly, his words .show him .to be both an intellectual pioneer and a literary. laggard. More familiarity with·· the literature of the subject would show him that he has had several predecessors ;n1:h~s pa.th. Col. Willia.m. B. Greene used to say of Lysander Spooner's financial proposals that their only originality lay in the fact that he had taken out a patent on them. The only originality of Stanford's lies· in the· fact that it is made for a government of 65,000,000 of people. For governments of other sizes the same proposal has been made before. Parallel to it·.. in all essentials, both e~onomically and 'politically, are ProlJdhon's Bank of Ex change and the proposal. of .Hugo Bilgram. Parallel to it economically are Proudhon's Bank of the People, Greene's Mutual Banks, and SpoQner's real estate mortgage banks.

And the financial thought that underlies it is closely paralleled in the writings of Josiah Warren,.Stephen Pearl Andrews, and John Ruskin. If Stanford will sit at the feet of any of these men. for a time, he will rise a wiser and more modest man. Like 1110st·serious matters, this affair has its .amusing side. It is seen in the idolization of Stanford by the Greenbackers. This shows how ignorant ~hese men are of their own principles. Misled by the resemblance of the. proposed measure to Green backism in some incidental. respects, they hurrah themselves hoarse over the California senator, blissfully unaware that his bill is utterly subversive to the sole essential of Greenbackism, -namely, the fiat idea. The Greenbacker is distinguished from· all other men .in this and only in ·this,-that in his eyes a dollar is a· dollar because the government stamps it as. such. Now in Stanford's eyes a dollar is a dollar because it is based upon and secured by a specific piece of property that will sell in the market for at least a certain number of grains of gold.

Two views more antagonistic than these it would be impos sible to cite. And yet the .leading organs of Greenbackism apparently regard them as identical. The great central·· principle of Anarchistic economics--174 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY namely, the dethronement of gold and silver from their posi tion of command over all other wealth by the destruction of their monopoly currency privilege-is rapidly forging to the front. The Farmers' Alliance sub-treasury scheme, unsci entific and clumsy as it is, is a glance in this direction. The importance of Senator Stanford's land bill, more scientific and workable, but incomplete, and vicious because govern ... mental, has already been emphasized in these columns. But most notable of all is the recent revolution in the financial attitude of Edward Atkinson, the most orthodox and cock sure of American economists, who now swells with his voice the growing demand for a direct representation of all wealth in the currency.

The proposal is briefly this: that the national banks of the country shall be divided into several districts, each district having a certain city as a banking centre; that any bank may deposit with the clearinghouse securities satisfactory to the ,clearinghouse committee, and receive from the clearinghouse certificates in the form of bank-notes of small denominations, to the extent of seventy-five per cent. of the value of the securities; that these notes shall bear the bank's promise to pay on the back, and shall be redeemable on demand at the bank in legal-tender money, and, in case of failure on the bank's part to so redeem them, they shall be redeemable at the clear inghouse; and that this new circulating medium shall be ex empt from the ten percent. tax imposed upon State bank circulation. Of course a scheme like this would not work the economic revolution which Anarchism expects from free banking. It does not destroy the monopoly of the right to bank; it retains the control of the currency in the hands of a cabal; it under takes the redemption of the currency in legal-tender money, regardless of the fact that, if any large proportion of the country's wealth should become directly represented in the currency, there would not be sufficient legal-tender money to redeem it. It is dangerous in its feature of centralizing re sponsibility instead of localizing it, and it is defective in less important respects. I call attention to it, and welcome it, because here for the first time Proudhon's doctrine of the republicanization of specie is soberly championed by a recogINDIVID'UAL LIBERTY 175 nized economist. This fact alone makes it an important sign of the. times.

,.r Still another Greenbacker, Mr. E. H.Benton, stepped forward, to plead for his favorite doctrine, the unlimited issue of government fiat money, a t(full legal tehder," which, he maintained, needed no other security than Uits lnherent funct;on and non-.d~scountableness,~~ maki1\g !l non-interest-bearing currency. Mr. Tucker tried to make •him see the light: Let me .suppose a case for Mr. Benton. A is a £armert and owns a farm worth five thousand dollars. B keeps a bank of issue, and .is known far and wide as a cautious, and honest business man. C, D, E, etc., down to Z are each engaged in some one of the various pllrsuits of civilized life. A needs ready money. He mortgages his farm to B,' and receives in return ,B's notes,in, various denominations, to the amount of five thousand dollars, for which B charges A this transaction's just proportion of the expenses of ,running the bank, which would be a little less than one-half· of one per cent. With these notes A buys various products which he needs of C, D, E, etc., down to Z, who in turn with the same notes buy products of each other, and in course of time come back to A with them to buy his farm produce. A, thus regaining possession of B's notes, returns them to B, who then cancels his mortgage on A's farm. All these parties, from A to Z, have been using for the performance of innumerable transactions B's notes based on A's farm, that is, a currency based on some security Hother than, its inherent function and non-discountableness." They were able to perform them only' because they all knew that· the notes were thus secured. A knew it because he gave the mortgage; B knew it because he took the mortgage; C, D, E, etc., down to Z knew' it because they ,'knew that Bnever issued notes unless they were secured in this' or some similar way. Now, Liberty is ready to see, as Mr. Benton says it ought to see, that any or all of these parties have been robbed 176 IN D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y by the use of this money when Mr. Benton shall demonstrate it by valid fact and argument. Until then he must stay in his corner.

A word as to the phrase ulegal tender." That only is legal tender which the government prescribes as valid for the discharge of debt. Any currency not so prescribed is not legal tender, no matter how universal its use or how un limited its issue, and to label it so is a confusion of terms. Another word as to the term ((Greenbacker." He is a Greenbacker who subscribes to the platform of the Greenback party. The cardinal principle of that platform is that the government shall monopolize the manufacture of money, and that anyone who, in rebellion against that sacred prerogative, may presume to issue currency O]J. his own account shall therefore be taxed, or fined, or imprisoned, or hanged, or drawn and quartered, or submitted to any other punishment or torture which the government, in pursuit and exercise of its good pleasure, may see fit to impose upon him. Unless Mr. Benton believes in that, he is not a Greenbacker, and I am sure I am not, although, with Mr. Benton, I believe in a non-interest-bearing currency.

Mr. Frank A. Matthews, an Anarchist and believing in the nCost" principle, expressed a .feeling that there was something arbitrary about· that principle, and at the same time confessed that his mind was unable to reconcile ((Cost" and competition. The editor of Liberty revealed the cause of his difficulty and explained the operation of the Cost principle: THE Cost principle cannot fail to seem arbitrary to one who does not see that it can only be realized through economic processes that go into operation the moment liberty is allowed in finance. To see this it is necessary to understand the principles of mutual banking, which Mr. Matthews has not attentively studied. If he had, he would know that the establishment of a mutual bank does not require the invest ment of capital, inasmuch as the customers of the bank furnish all the capital upon which the bank's notes are INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 177 based, and that therefore the rate of discount charged by the bank for the service of exchanging its notes for those of its customers is governed,. under competition, by the cost of that service, and not· by. the rate of interest that capital commands. The relation is just the contrary of Mr. Mat thews's supposition. It is the rate of interest on capital that is.·governed by the bank's rate of discount,. for capitalists will not be able to lend. their capital at interest when people.can set money at the bank without interest with which to buy capital outright. It is. this effect of free and mutual banking upon the rate· of interest on capital that insures, or rather constitutes, the realization of the Cost principle by economic processes. For· the. moment interest .and rent are eliminated as elements of price, and. brisk competition is assured by the ease of getting. capital, pr(}n.ts fall to the level of the manu facturer's or merchant's proper wage. It is well,. 3.8 Mr.

Matthews says, to have the Cost principle in view; for it is doubtless true that the ease with which . society travels the path of progress is largely governed by the. clearness with which it foresees it.:But, foresight or no foresight, it CCgets there· just the same." .The only foresight absolutely necessary to progress is foresight of the fact that liberty is its single essential condition. UEdgeworth," writing to Liberty, expressed .doubt about how some .phases of Proudhon's Exchange Bank would work out in practice. Mr. Tucker patiently ex plained the various· points criticised: PROUDHON was accustomed to present his views of the way in which credit may be organized in two forms,-his Bank of Exchange and his Bank of the People. The latter was his real ideal; the former he advocated whenever he wished to avoid .the. necessity of combating the objections of the gov ernmentalists. The Bank of Exchange was to be simply the Bank of France transformed on the mutual principle•.It is easy to se~ that the precautions against forgery and over issue now used by the. Bank of France would be equally valid after the transformation. But in the case of the Bank of the People, which involves the introduction of free competition 178 INDIVIDUAL LIBER TY into the banking business, these evils will have to be other wise guarded against. The various ways of doing this are secondary considerations, having nothing to do with the prin ciples of finance; and human ingenuity, which has heretofore conquered much greater obstacles, will undoubtedly prove equal to the emergency. The more reputable banks would soon become distinguished from the others by some sort of voluntary organization and mutual inspection necessary to their own protection. The credit of all such as declined to submit to thorough examination by experts at any moment or to keep their books open for public inspection would be ruined, and these would receive no patronage. Prob,ably also the better banks would combine in the use of a uniform pank note paper· difficult to counterfeit, which would be guarded most carefully and distributed to the various banks only so far as they could furnish security for it. In fact, any number of checks can be devised by experts that would secure the currency against all attempts at a~ulteration. There is little doubt that the first essays will be, as ((Edgeworth" hopes, ((local and limited." But I do not think the money so pro duced will be nearly as safe as that which will result when the system has become widespread and its various branches organized in such a way that the best means of protection may be utilized at small expense.

Frequently the editor of Liberty found it necessary to attack the delusions and sophistries of writers in other periodicals, and the following is a case in point. (In this article Mr. Tucker used the term ((Socialist" in its generic sense, and of course did not mean CCstate" So cialist. ) VAN BUREN DENSLOW, discussing in the Truth Seeker the comparative rewards of labor and capital, points out that the present wage system divides profits almost evenly between the two, instancing the railways of Illinois, which pay annually in salaries and wages $81,936,170, and to capital, which Mr.. Denslow defines as the Ctlabor previously done in constructing and equipping the roads," $81,720,265. Then he remarks: INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 179 ttNo system of int~ntional profit-sharing is, more equal than this, provided we assent to the principle that,a day's work already done and embodied in the form of capital is as well entitled to. compensation for its· use as a day's work not yet done, which we call labor." Exactly. But the principle referred to is the very thing which we Socialists deny, and until Mr. Denslow can meet and vanquish us on that point, he will in vain attempt to defend the existing or any other form of. profit-sh:1rin$_ The Socialists assert that tt a day's work embodied in the form.' of 'capital" has .already been fully rewarded by the ownership of that capital; that, if the owner lends it to another to use andthe user damages it, destroys it, or consumes any part of it, the owner 'is ,entitled to have this damage, destruction, or consumption made good; and that t if the owner, receives from' the user any surplus beyond the return of his .capital· intact, his day's' work is paid for a second time. .

Perhaps Mr. Denslow will tell us, as we have so O'ften been told before, that this day's work should be paid for a second and a· third and a hundredth and a millionth time, because the capital which it produced and in. which, it is embodied increased the productivity of future labor. The fact that it did. cause such an increase we .grant; \but -that labor, where there is, freedom, 'is or should be paid ir,a. proportion to its use fulness' we deny. All useful qu.alities'.exist in nature, either actively or potentially, and their benefits, under freedom, are distributed by the natural law of free exchange among man kind. .The laborer who brings any particular useful quality into action is ,paid according to the labor he,has expended, but gets only his share, in common with all mankind, of the special usefulness of this product. It is true that the use fulness of his ·product· has a tendency to ,enhance its price; but this tendency is immediately, offset, wherever competition is possible,--and as long as there is a money' monopoly there is no freedom of competition in any industry requiringcapi tal,-by the rush of other lah()rers to create this product, which lasts until the pric'e falls hack to the normal wages of lahor. Hence it is evident that the owner of the capital embodying. the day's work ~hove .referred to cannot' get his work paid for even a second time by selling his capital. ' Why, then, should he' be able to get· it paid for a second time and 180 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY an infinite number of times by repeatedly lending his capital?

Unless Mr. Denslow can give us some reason, he will have to admit that all profit-sharing is a humbug, and that the entire net product of industry should fall into the hands of labor not previously embodied ... in the form of capital,-in other words, that wages should entirely absorb profits. Some nincompoop, writing to the Detroit Spectator in oppo sition to cheap money, says: ttlf low interest insured high wages, during times of business depression wages would be high, for then interest reaches its minimum." Another· man unable to see below the surface of things and distinguish as sociation from causation! The friends of cheap money do not claim that low interest insures high wages. What they claim is that free competition in currency-issuing and the con sequent activity of capital insure both low interest and high wages. They do not deny that low interest sometimes results from other causes and unaccompanied by any increase" in wages. When the money monopolists through their privilege have bled the producers nearly all they can, hard times set in, business becomes very insecure, no one dares to venture in new directions or proceed much further in old directions, there is no demand for capital, and therefore interest falls; but, there being a decrease in the volume of business, wages fall also. Suppose, now, that great leveller, bankruptcy, steps in to wipe out all existing claims, and economic life begins over again under a system of free banking. What happens then? All capital is at once made available by the abundance of the currency, and the supply is so great that interest is kept very low; but confidence being restored and the way being clear for all sorts of new enterprises, there is also a great demand for capital, and the consequent increase in the volume of business causes wages to rise to a very high point.

When people are afraid to borrow, interest is low and wages are low; when people are anxious to borrow, but can find only a very little available capital in the market, interest is high and wages are low; when people are both anxious to borrow and can readily do so, interest is low and wages are high, the only exception being that, when from some special cause labor is extraordinarily productive (as was the case in the early days of California), interest temporarily is high also.

If II-LAND AND RENT LAND FOR THE PEOPLE Alth6ugh •s~e6nd~ry in th~· study of· econonUcs, k. the view of the Anarchists t the land question' nevertheless ranks high with a large number of persons, hence it was always coming to' the front in the columns of ,Liberty. During the period covered by the matter in this volume the Single Tax.·was 'veryprotninent .in most discussions of thissubject,an<J. Henry George. was very active in his pr~paganda, hence, in the> following pages, there will be many references. to his •pet theory ... The Irish land question also was very much in the public eye, and the tiverpoolspeech, referred to here, is that in which Michael Davitt, in 1882, first publicly. endorsed the doctrine 'of land nationalization. The term. urent,"as. here used by Mr. Tucker, means monopolistic rent, paid by the. tenant to the .landlord,and notecono~ic rent, the advantage enjoyed by the occupant of superior. land. This dis tinction is lmaintained' generally throughout these .discussions. ~ THE Liverpool speech, it seems, as delivered by Davitt in respons~ to a challenge from the English press to el\'plain the meaning of the phrase, Hthe" Ii·nd for the people.'" We hope . they understand it .110W.

uThe land for the people," accor ing to Parnell, appears to mean a change of the pr~sent tena •ts into propri~to1"li of the. estates by allowing them to purch se on easy terms fixed by the State and. perhaps· with the State's aid, and a maintenance thereafter of the present .landlord system, involving the col lection of rents by law. 1St 182 INDIVIDU AL ' LIBERTY ttThe land for the people,H according to Davitt, as ex plained at Liverpool, appears to mean a change of the whole agricultural population into tenants of the State, which is to become the sole proprietor by purchase from the present pro prietors, and the maintenance thereafter of the present land lord system involving the collection of rents in the form of taxes. CtThe land for the people," according to George, appears to be the same as according to Davitt, except that the State is to acquire the land by:confiscation instead of by purchase, and that the amount of rental is to be fixed by a different method of valuation.

CtThe land for the people," according to Liberty, means the protection (by the State while it exists, and afterwards by such voluntary association for the maintenance of justice a~ may be destined to succeed it) .of· all people who desire to cultivate land in the possession of whatever land. they per sonally cultivate, without distinction between the existing classes of landlords, tenants, and laborers, and the positive refusal of the protecting power to lend its aid to the collec tion of any rent whatsoever; this state of things to be brought about by inducing· the people to steadily refuse the paylnent of rent and taxes, and thereby, as' well as by all other means of passive and moral resistance, compel the State to repeal all the so-called land titles now existing. . Thus ttthe land for the people" according to Liberty is the only Uland for the people" that means the abolition of land lordism and the annihilation of rent; and all of Henry George's talk about ttpeasant proprietorship necessarily mean ing .nothing more than an extension of the landlord class" is the veriest rot, which should be thrown back upon him by the charge that land nationalization means nothing more tpan a diminution of the landlord class and a concentration and, I hundred-fold multiplication of the landlord's power.

RENT CtEdgeworth/' a frequent contributor to Liberty, had read a couple of Proudhon's books, treating of the rent question, which Mr. Tucker had recommended to him, INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 183~ and he seemed'. to be muddled about the ctfictionof the productivity of capital," and some other things. And so the ,editor •enlightened him: THE two works which I recommended to Edgeworth, are among Proudhon's best; but they are very far from all that he has.,written, and it is very natural for,the reader.0£ a very small portion of his "writings ,to draw inferences.' which he will find unwarrantedl, when he reads more. This is due prit1 cipallytoProudhon's ;habit of using words' in different 'senses at different times, wllich I regard as ,unfortunate. Now, in the. article which gave rise to this discussion,Edgeworth in ferred (or seemed to infer), from th,e fact ,that some of Proudhon's transitional proposals, allowed a share to · capital fora time, that he contemplated as a permanent arrangement a division .of labor's earnings' between labor and capital as two distinct things. Lest this might mislead, I took, the liberty to 'correct it, and to state that Proudhon thought labor. the only legitimate title to wealth.

Now comes Edgeworth,and says that he meant by, capital only the result of preparatory labor, which is as much en titled to reward as any other~ Very good, say I; no one denies that. But this is not. what is ordinarily meant by the ccproductivity of capital"; and Edgeworth, •by his own rule~ is bound to use words in their usual sense. The usual sense of this phrase, and the sense in which the economists use it, is that capital has suchan independent share in. all production that the owner of it may rightfully farm out the privilege of using it, receive a steady income from it, have it restored' ;to him intact at the' expiration of the lease, farm it out again to ,somebody else, 'and gO"on in this way,' he and, his. heirs forever, living in a permlnent state of idleness and luxury simply from having performed' a certain amount ofccprepara tory labor." , That is what, Proudhon denounced as ((the fiction of the productivity of capital"; and Edgeworth, in iuterpreting the phrase. otherwise, gives it a very •unusual sense, in violation of his own rule.

Moreover, what Edgeworth goes,on to say about the pro portional. profits of landlord and tenant indicates that he has very loose ideas about the proper reward of labor, whether 184 IN D I V ID U A L :t I B E R T Y present or preparatory. The scientific reward (~nd under absolutely free competition the actual reward is, in the long run, almost identical with it) of labor is the product of' an equal amount of equally arduous labor. The product of an hour of Edgeworth's labor in preparing a field for cotton culture, and the product of an hour of his tenant's labor in sowing and harvesting the crop, ought each to exchange for the product of an hour's labor of their neighbor the shoemaker, or their neighbor the tailor," or their neighbor the grocer, or their neighbor the doctor, provided the labor of all· these parties is equally exhausting and implies equal amounts of ac quired skill and equal outlays for tools and facilities. Now, supposing the cases of Edgeworth and his tenant to be repre sentative and not isolated; and supposing them to proq.uce, not for their own consumption, but for the purpose of sale, which is the purpose of practically all. production, it then makes no difference to either of them whether their hour's labor yields five pounds of cotton or fifteen. In the one case they can get no. more shoes or clothes or 'groceries or medical services for the fifteen pounds than they can in the other for the five. The great body' of landlords and tenants, like the great body of producers in any other industry, does not profit by an increased productivity in its special field of 'Work, except to the extent that it consumes or reputchases its own product. the profit of this increase' goes to the people at large, the consumers. So it is not true (assuming always a regime of free competition) that Edgeworth's tenant ((profits three times as much" as Edgeworth because of the latter's preparatory labors. Neither of them profit thereby, but each gets an hour of some other man's labor' for an hour of his own.

So much for the reward of labor in general. Now to get back to the question of rent. If Edgeworth performs preparatory labor on a cotton field, the result of which would remain intact if the field lay idle, and that result is. damaged by a tenant, the tenant ought to pay him for it on the basis of reward· above defined. This does not bring a right of ownership to the tenant, to be sure, for the property has been destroyed and cannot be purchased. But the transaction, nevertheless, is in the nature of a sale. and not a payment for a loan. Every sale is an· exchange of labor, and the tenant simply pays money representing his INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY I8S Own labor; lor the result of Edgeworth'slabor which he (the tenant) has destroyed in appropriating it to his own use. If the tenant does notdamage~ the result of Edgeworth's prepar atory.labor, then, as Edgeworth· admits, .w4atever money the tenant pays .justlyentitles him to· that amount ·of ownership in the cotton:field~ Now, this money, paid over and above all danlage, if it does not bril1g equivalent ownership, is payment for use, usury, ap.d, in my termino~ogy;rent. It Edgeworth prefers ·to use the "Word. rent to· signify allmofiey .. p~id to landlords as such by tenants as such for whatever reason, I shall think his use of the word inaccurate; but I shall not qu~rrel with ~im, and shall only protest when he interprets other men's thought by his own definitions, as he seemed to me. to have done in Proudhon's case. If ·he will be similarly peaceful towards me in my use of the word, there will be no logomachy.

The difference between us is just this. Edgeworth says th~t from tenant to landlord there is payment for damage, and this is just. rent; and there is payment. for use, and that is unjust rent., I say there is payment for damage, and this is indemni fication or sale, and is just; and there is payment for use, and that is rent, and is unjust. My use]o£the,word is in accord ance with the dictionary, and· is more definite and discrim inating than the .other; moreover, I find it more effective in argument .. Many a time has some smaV.proprietor, troubled with qualms of conscience and anxiQus to. justify the source of his income, -exclaimed, on learning .that I believe in pay mentfor wear and teal':ccOh! well, you believe in rent, after aU; it's oalya question of ho)V much rent;" after which he would settle back, satisfied. 1 have always found that the only way. to give such a man's. conscience ·a chance to get a hold upon his thought and conduct was to insist on the narrower use of the word· rent. It calls the attention much more vividly to the distinction b~~ween justice and injustice.

More from CtEdgeworth" about cCunearnedincrement," Ujudgmentand skill," Hemployer the appraiser of work," etc. Then a few more remarks from Mr. Tucker: This smacks of Henry George. If the municipality is an organization·. to which every. person residing within a •given terri/tory must belong and pay tribute, it is not a bit more de:186 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY tensible than the State itself,-in fact, is nothing but a small State; and to vest in it a title to any part of the value of real estate is simply land nationalization on a small scale, which no Anarchist can look upon with favor. If the municipality is a voluntary organization, it can have no titles except what it gets from the individuals composing it. If they choose to transfer their ((unearned increments" to the municipality, well and good; but any individual not choosing to do so ought to be able to hold his ((unearned increment" against the world.

If it is unearned, certainly his neighbors did not earn it. The advent of Liberty will reduce all unearned increments to a harmless minimum. I have never maintained that judgment and skill are less important than labor; I have only maintained that neither judgment nor skill can be charged for in equity except so far as they have been acquired. Even then the payment is not for the judgment or skill, but for the labor of acquiring; and, in estimating the price, one hour of labor in acquiring judg ment is to be considered equ~l,-not, as now, to one day, or week, or perhaps year of manual toil,-but to one hour of manual toil. The claim for judgment and skill is usually a mere pretext made to deceive the people into paying exorbitant prices, and will not bear analysis for a moment On the contrary, the employee, the one who ooes the work, is naturally and ethically the appraiser of work, and all that the employer has to say is whether he will pay the price or not. Into his answer enters the estimate of the value of the result. Under the present system he offers less than cost, and the employee is forced to accept. But Liberty and com petition. will create such an enormous market for labor that no workman will be forced by his incompetency to work for less than cost, as he will always be in a position to resort to some simpler work for which he is competent and can ob tain adequate pay.

ECONOMIC RENT Mr. Steven T. Byington, who at that time was a sup porter of the Single Tax, asked the editor of Liberty to explain some phases of economic rent, especially as to I ND I V I D U ALL I BERT Y 187 the· hope for' its dis.appearance under Anarchism. Mr. Tucker gave him. this answer: LIBERTY has never stood with those who profess to show on strictly economic grounds that economic rent tnZtst disappear or. even decrease. as a result of· the application of the Anar chistic principle. It sees no. chance for that· factor in the human constitution which. makes competition such a power ful influence-namely, the disposition to .buy in the cheapest market-to act directly upon' economic rent ill a way to reduce it. This disposition .to •buy cheap, which in a free market is.fatal to all other forms of usury, is on the contrary the mainstay of economic rent, whether· the market he' free or restricted, when, through. freedom of .banking,.it shall become po~sible to furnish mon~y at cost, no one will pay for money more than cost; and hence interest. on money, as well as on all capital consisting. of commodities which. money will buy and to the production of which there is no natural limit~ will necessarily disappear. But the occupant of land who is enabled, by' its •superiority, to undersell his. neighbor and at the same time to reap,. through' his greater volume of. busi ness, moreproflt than his neighbor, enjoys this economic rent precisely because of his opportunity to .exploit the consumer's disposition to buy cheap. The effect of freedom is not felt here in the same way and with the same directness that it is feIt elsewhere.

There are other' grounds, ho.wever, some of··them indirectly econo,mic, some of them purely sentimental, which justify the belief of the Anarchist that a condition of freedom will grad ually modify to a' very appreciable extent the advantage. enjoyed by the occupant of superior land~ Take first one .that is indirectly econolllic.. I agree with my· correspondent that great cities are not destined to disappear. But I believe also that they will be able to maintain their existence only by of f~ring their advantages at a lower price than they now exact. When the laborer, in consequence of his increased wages and greater welfare resulting from the abolition of interest, shall . enjoy a larger freedom of locomotion,·.shall. he tied down less firmly to .a particular employmen~, a.nd shall be .ableto remove to .the country. with greater facility and in possession of more 188 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY capital than he can now command, and when the country, partly because of this mobility of labor and partly because of the advances in science, shall continually offer a nearer ap proach to the undoubted privileges of city life, the representa tives of commercial and other interests in the great cities will be able to hold their patrons about them only by lowering their prices and contenting themselves with smaller gains.

In other words, economic rent will lessen. Here the disposi tion to buy cheap, not any special commodity, but an easy life, does exert an indirect and general influence upon eco nomic rent. And, under this influence and yielding to it, the city may increase in prosperity simultaneously with the decline of economic rent. Nay, the increase in prosperity may accelerate this decline; for under liberty increased pros perity means also well-distributed prosperity, which means in turn a lowering of the barriers· between classes and a con sequent tendency to equalize the different localities of the city one with another. Upon the sentimental grounds for believing in the evanes cence .of economic rent it is _perhaps not worth while to dwell. I have an aversion to definite speculations based on hypothetical transformations in human nature. Yet I cannot doubt that the disappearance of interest will result in an atti tude of hostility to usury in any form, which will ultimately cause any person who charges more than cost for any product to be regarded very much as we now regard a pickpocket. In this way, too, economic rent will suffer diminution.

I think my correspondent fails to understand what is meant by the freeing of vacant land. It does not mean simply the freeing of unoccupied land. It means the freeing of all land not occupied by the owner. In other words~ it means land ownership limited by occupancy and use. This would destroy not only speculative but monopolistic rent, leaving no rent ex cept the economic form, which will be received, while it lasts, not as a sum paid by occupant to owner, but as an extra and usurious reward for labor performed under special advantages. But evert if economic rent had to be co~sidered a per manency; if the considerations which I have urged should prove of no avail against it,-it would be useless, tyrannical, and productive of further tyranny to confiscate it. In the INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 189 ftrst 'place, .. if 1 have a right to a.share of the advantages that accrue from the possession of superior land, then that share is mine; it is'1l}Y property; it is like any otherprope·rty.of mine; no man, nobody of men, is entitled to decidehQw this prop"

erty shall be .used; and any man or body of men attempting so to decid~deprives me of my property just as trply as the owner .of the superior land deprives me of it if allowed to retain the economic.·r~nt. In fact, still assuming that this property i.s ~ mi.ne,. I •prefer, if I.·.'muSlt be robbed of it, to be n>bbedby the land-owner, who is likely to spend it in some useful way,.'rather ·than by an institution called government, which probably .will spend it for fireworks or something else which I equally disapprove~ If the property is mine, I claim it, t9 do as Ipleasewiih; if it is not mi~, it is impertinent, dishonest, and. tyrannical for anybody to forcibly take it from the· land-occupant on the pretense that it is mine and to.spend it in my name. It is precisely this, however, that the Single Taxers propose, and it is this that makes the Single-Tax a State Socialistic measure. There was. never anything •·more absurd than the supposition of some Single-T ax-ers that this tax can be harmonized with Anarchism.

But I now and .then meet a Single-Taxer who allows that the government, after confiscating this economic rent, has no right to devote it to any so-c,alled.pub1icpurposes, but should distribute it to the people. Supposing the people to. be en titledto1;he economic rent, this certainly looks on its face like a much saner and more· honest .proposition than that of the ordinary Single..Taxer. But the question at once arises: Who ,is to pay the government officials for their services in con... fiscating .the economic rent and handing me my share of it? And. how. much is to be paid. them? And who is to decide these matters? When I reflect that under such a Single-Tax systetntheo~cupants of superior land are likely tQbecomethe politicians and to tax back· from the people.to pay their sal arjeswhat the people have taxed out of them as ec1onomic rent, 'again I ~ay· that, even if a Pttrt of'the economic rent·is rightly mine, I· prefer. to leave it in the pocket of the land owner, since it is bound to ultimately get back· th~re. As M. Schneider".the Carnegie of France, said in a recent inter vieww"itha Figaro.reporter: uEvenif we were to have a col190 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY lectivist system or society and my property should be confis cated, 1 believe that I am shrewd enough to find a way to feather my nest just the same." M. Schneider evidently un derstands State Socialism better than the State Socialists themselves. The Socialists and Single-Taxers will have at tained their paradise when they are robbed by officials instead of by landlords and capitalists.

In my view it is idle to discuss what shall be done with the economic rent after it has been confiscated, for I distinctly deny the propriety of confiscating it at all. There are two ways, and only two, of affecting the distribution of wealth. One is to let it distribute itself in a free market in accordance with the natural operation of economic law; the other is to distribute it arbitrarily by authority in accordance with stat ute law. One is Anarchism; the other is State Socialism. The latter, in its worst and most probable form, is the exploitation of labor by officialdom, and at its best is a regime of spiritless equality secured at the expense of liberty and progress; the former is a regime of liberty and progress, with as close an ap proximation to equality as is compatible therewith. And this is all the equality that we ought to have. A greater equality than is compatible with liberty is undesirable. The moment we invade liberty to secure equality we enter upon a road which knows no stopping-place short of the annihilation of all that is best in the human race. If absolute equality is the ideal; if no man must have the slightest advantage over an other,-then the man who achieves greater results through superiority of muscle or skill or brain must not be allowed to enjoy them. All that he produces in excess of that which the weakest and stupidest produce must be taken from him and distributed among his fellows. The economic rent, not of land only, but of strength and skill and intellect and superior ity of every kind, must be confiscated. And a beautiful world it would be when absolute equality had been thus achieved!

Who would live in it? Certainly no freeman. Liberty will abolish interest; it will abolish profit; it will abolish monopolistic rent; it will abolish taxation; it will abolish the exploitation of labor; it will abolish all means whereby any laborer can be deprived of any of his product; but it will not abolish the limited inequality between one INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 191 laborer's product and~nother s.Now, because it has not this power last named, there'.are people who say: We will have no liberty, for .•we. must . have absolute equality. I am not of them~ If I go through life free and rich; 1 shall not cry beca,use my neighbor, equally free, is .richer.. Liberty will 'ulthnately, make all men rich; it will not make all men equally rich. Authority may (and may ·not) make all men equally rich in purse; .it certainly will make them equally poor in all that tnakes life best worth l~v~ng. Mr.•Byington's erroneous conclusions regarding .the confis cation of economic rent are due, as I' view it, to his confusion of liberties with rights, or, perhaps I might better. say, to his foundation.of equality of liberty upon a supposed equality of rights. I take issue with him at the very start by denying the dogma of equality of rights,-in fact, by· denying •. rights al together except those acquired by contract. In times past, when, though already·. an •Egoist and knowing' then as' now that every man acts and always will act solely from an inter est in self,' I .had not. considered the bearing of Egoism upon the question of obligation, it was my habit to talk glibly and loosely of' the right of •man to' the land. It was. a bad habit, and I Jongago sloughed· it off. Man's .only right over the ,land is his might over it. . If his neighbor is mightier than he and takes the land from him, then the land is' his·.. neighbor's until the latter is dispossessed in' turn by one mightier still.

But while the danger of such dispossession continues there is no society, ,no security, no comfort. Hence men contract. They agree upon certain' conditions of.·land owne'rship,. and will' protect no title in the absence of the' conditions fixed upon~ The object of this contract is nQt to enable aU' to benefit equally from the land, but to enable each to hold securely at his own disposal the results·•of his efforts .ex pended upon such portion of the earth as he may possess under the conditions agreed upon. It· is principally to secure this absolute control of the results of one's efforts that equality of liberty is/instituted, not as a matter of right, but as a so cial convenience. I have always maintained that liberty is of greater ·importance than wealth,-i:n other words, that ·1l1an derives morehappinesfroln freedom. than ·from luxury,--and this is .' true; but there is another sense in' which wealth, or, 192 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY rather, property, is of greater importance than liberty. Man has but little to gain from liberty unless that liberty includes the liberty to control what he produces. One of the chief purposes of equal liberty is to secure this fundamental neces sity of property, and, if property is not thereby secured, the temptation is to abandon the regime of contract and return to the reign of the strongest.

Now the difference between the equal liberty of the An archists and the system which Mr. Byington and the Single Taxers consider equal liberty is this: the former secures prop erty, while the latter violates it. The Anarchists say to the individual: uOccupancy and use is the only title to land in which we will protect you; if you attempt to use land which another is occupying and using, we will protect him against you; if another attempts to use land to which you lay claim, but which you are not occupy ing and using, we will not interfere with him; but of such land as you occupy and use you are the sale master, and we will not ourselves take from you, or allow anyone else to take from you, whatever you may get out of such land." The Single-Taxers, on the other hand, say to the individual: uYou may hold all the land you have inherited or bought, or may inherit or buy, and we will protect you in such holding; but, if you produce more from your land than your neighbors produce from theirs, we will take from you the excess of your product over theirs and distribute it among them, or we will spend it in taking a free ride whenever we want to go any where, or we win make any use of it, wise or foolish, that may come into our heads."

The reader who compares these two positions will need no comment of mine to enable him to decide tton which side the maximum of liberty lies," and on which side property, or the individual control of product is respected. If Mr. Byington does not accept my view thus outlined, it is incumbent upon him to overthrow it by proving to me that man has a right to land; if he does accept it, he must see that it completely disposes of his assertion that ttwhen an other man takes a piece of land for his own and warns me off it, he exceeds the limits of equal liberty toward me with re spect to that land," upon which assertion all his argument rests.

INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 193 LIBERTY, LAND, AND LABOR While the Single Taxis now rarely spoken of, atone time, during Henry George's activity, it was very much, in the public eye. But George was ihclined to be... , little or ignore all 6ther factors of the economic problem, so he frequently received caustic criticism from the editor of Liberty: HERE is a ,delicious bit't>£ logic from Mr. George: tt1£ capi tal,a;mere creature of labor, is such an oppressive thing, its creator, when free, can strangle it by, refusing, to reproduce it." The italics are mine. If capital is oppressive, it must be oppressive of .labor. ' 'What difference does it make, then, what 1abor. can' do when free? The question is what it can do when. oppressed by capital. Mr• George"snexi: sentence, to besu.re, indicates that the freedom he refers to is freedopl from. land monopoly. But this does not improve his situation. He is enough of an economist to be very well aware that, whether it has land or not, 'labor which can get no capital~that is, !which is oppressed by capital-cannot, without accepting the alternative of starvation, refuse to reproduce-capital for the capit~lists.

It is one thing for Mr. George to sit in his sanctum and write of, the ease with which.a 'man whose sole possesslon,is.a bit Qfland can build a home aild scratch a living; for the man to do it is wholly another thing. The truth is that this man can do nothing,.of the .sortbntil you devise ~ome 11leaijs of, r~ising his wages above the cost of living. And you tan onlydQ this by increasing the demand for his labor by enabling m re men to go into business. And you can only enable m're m.en to, go into business by, enabling them to get capital wi hout interest, which, ip Mr. George's opinion, would be ve y wrong.' And you' can only enable ,them to get, capital wi hout interest by abolishing the money mqnopoly, which, by Ii iting the supply of money, enables its holders to exact in erest. And when you have abolished!the money mon()ply~ an when, in consequence, the wages of the man with, the bit of'land have begun to rise above the cost of living, ,the labor qu stion-,wil1be nine-tenths,solve,cl.For then either this man 194 INDIVIDU AL LIBERTY will live better and better, or he will steadily lay up money, with which he can buy tools to compete with his employer or to till his bit of land with comfort and advantage. In shortt he will be an independent man, receiving all that he produces or an equivalent thereof. How to make this the lot of all men is the labor question. Free land will not solve it. Free money, supplemented by free land, will.

In trying to answer the argument that land is practically useless to labor unprovided with capital, Henry. George de clares that ((labor and land, even in the absence of secondary factors obtained from their produce, have in their union to day, as they had in the beginning, the potentiality of all that man ever has brought, or ever can bring, into being." This is perfectly true; in fact, none know it better than the men whom Mr. George thus attempts to meet. But, as Cap'n Cuttle was in the h;tbit of remarking, ((the bearin' 0' this 'ere hobserwation lies in the application on't," and in its application it has no force whatever. Mr. George us~s it to prove that, if land were free, labor would settle on it, thus raising wages by relieving the labor market. But labor would do no such thing. The fact that a laborer, given a piece of land, can build a hut of mud, strike fire with flint and steel, scratch a living with his finger-nails, and thus begin life as a barbarian, even w~th the hope that in the course of a lifetime he may slightly improve his condition in consequence of having fashioned a few of the ruder of those implements which Mr. George styles ccsecondary factors" (and he could do no more than this with out producing for exchange, which implies, not only better machinery, but an entrance into that capitalistic maelstrom which would sooner or later swallow him up) ,-this fact, I say, will never prove a temptation to the operative of the city, who, despite his wretchedness, knows something of the advantages of civilization and to some extent inevita}Jly shares them.

Man does not Iive by bread alone. The city laborer / may live in a crowded tenement and breathe a tainted air; he may sleep cold, dress in rags, and feed on crumbs; but now and then he gets a glimpse at the morn ing paper, or if not that, then at the bulletin-board; he meets his fellow-men face to face; he knows by contact with the INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY, 195 world more or less of what is going •on in it; he spends a few pennies'.occasionally for a. gallery-ticket to .the theatre 'or for someother luxury, even though he knows he Ucan't afford i('; he hears the music of the street, bands; he sees the pictures in the shop windows; he goes to church if he is pious, or if not, perhaps attends the meetings of the Anti-Poverty Society and listens to stump speechesby Henry George; and, when all these fail him, he is indeed unfortunate if some fellow-laborer does not.invite him. to' join him in a social glass over the nearest bar.

Not an ideal life, surely; but he will shiver in his garret and slowly waste away from inanition ere he will exchange it for the'·semi-barbarous condition of the backwoodsman without an axe.• And, were he,to do otherwise, I· would be the :first to cry: ,The more fool he! Mr. 'George's remedy is similar-at least for a part of man kind--to that which is, attributed to the Nihilists, but which few of them ever believedin,---namely" the total destruction of the existing social.order and. the: cre~tion, of a new one on its ruins. . Mr. George may as 'well understand first as ,last that labor wiUrefuse to begin this world anew. It never will abandon even its present meagre enjoyment of the wealth and, the, means of wealth which have ·grown out of· its ages ofsarrow, suffering, and slarvery. If Mr. George ·offers it land alone, it will turn itsbadk upon him. It insists upon both land and tools. These it will get, either by the State Socialistic method of·. concentrating ,the titles to them in the hands of one vast monopoly, or. by the Anarchistic method, of abolishing all mo nopolies, and thereby distributing these titles gradually among lab<>rers'through the natural channels of £reeproduction and exchange.

Mr.·T.·W. Curtis thought he discovered inconsistency and exaggeration in the foregoing, and, upbraided Mr. Tucker. The latter then went into the matter more deeply: HENRY GEORGE and his co-workers are of that class who ((speakin the name' of liberty, but do not know the meaning of the word." Mr. George has no conception of liberty as a 196 INDIVIDU AL LIBER Toy universal social law. He happens to see that in some things it would lead to good results, and therefore in those things favors it. But it has never dawned UPOI; his mind that disorder is the inevitable fruit of every plant which has authority for its root. As John F. Kelly says of him, e:the is inclined to look with favor on the principle of laissez faire, yet he will abandon it at any moment, whenever regulation seems more likely to produce immediate benefits, regardless of the evil thereby pro duced by making the people less jealous of State interference."

The nature of his belief in ·liberty is well illustrated by his attitude on the tariff question. One would suppose from his generalization that he has the utmost faith in freedom of competition; but one does not realize how little this faith amounts to until he hears him, after making loud free-trade professions, propose to substitute a system of bounties for the tariff system. If such political and economic empiricism is not rubbish beside the coherent proposals of either Anarchism or State Socialism, then I don't, know chaff from wheat. Liberty, of course, had something to do with the writing of UProgress and Poverty." It also had something to do with the framing of ·divorce laws as relief from indissoluble marriage. But the divorce laws, instead of being libertarian, are an ex press recognition of the rightfulness of authority over the sexual relations. Similarly ((Progress and Poverty" expressly recognizes the rightfulness of authority over the cultivation and use of land. For some centuries now evolution has been little else than the history of liberty; nevertheless all its fac tors have not been children of liberty.

Mr. Curtis turns his attention to the editorial on ccSecondary Factors." He thinks that my assertion that George asks labor to (Cbegin this world anew" ought to be backed by S0111e sh-ow of argument. Gracious heavens! I backed it at the begin ning of my article by a quotation from George himself. Dis lodged by his critics from one point after another, George had declared that (Clabor and land, even in the absence of second ary factors obtained from their produce, have in their union today, as they had in the beginning, the potentiality of all that man ever has brought, or ever can bring, into being." When such words as these are used to prove that, if land were free, labor would settle on it, even without secondary factors, -that is, without tools,-what do they mean exceptt1,lat the INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 197 laborer is expected to tcbegin this world anew"? But if this is not enough for Mr. Curtis, may I refer him to the debate between George· and Shewitch, in whic'hthe former, being asked· by •the .latter what. would have become of Friday if Crusoe had fenced off half the island and turned him loose upon it without any tools, answered that Friday would have made. some fish-hooks out of bones and gone .fishing? Isn't that sufficiently primitive 'to .. substantiate my· assertion, Mr.

Curtis? 'tell Mr. George that the laborer. can dQ nothing: without capital, and he will answer you substantially as fol lows.: Qriginally there was nothing but a naked man and the naked l~nd; free the land, and then:, i£.the laborer has no tools:t hew-ill again be a naked man on naked land and can do all that Adam did. When 1 point out that such a r(:turn to barbarism ,is on a par with the remedy attributed to the Nihilists, the total destruction. of the existing social order, Mr. Curtis asserts that uthis is wild talk;" but his assertion, it seems tome" Uought ·to be backed by ,some show of. argument." , 'He is sure, however, that there is no need of going to the backwoods. There is enou'gh vacant land in the neighborhood of cities, he thinks, to employ the surplus workers, and thus relieve the labor market. .Butt:his l~nd will. not employ any workers that have no capital, aiid those that have capital can get··the •• land now•. rhus the ·o~d question comes back ·again~ Make capital free by organizing I credit ona mutual plan, and th.enthes~ vacant lands will· conlt.··. e.into u.se, a.nq then in.<lus.try W1ll bestllllulated, and then ope~atlves Will ·be able to buy axes and .rakes and hoes, and then they will be independent of their employers,and. then the labor problem will be solved.

My worst. o:ffense..Mr. Curtis reserves till the last. It con sists in telling the worki1l;gmanthat he .would be a fool not,to prefer the street bands; the shop windows, the theatres, and ,the~hurches to a renewal \6£ .barbaric life. Mr. Curti~ ~gain misapprehends me in' thinking that I commend the bands, the windows, etc. I said explicitly that ,there ~s nothing ideal about them.·· ' But society has come to be man's dearest pos session, and the advantages and privileges which I cited, crude and vulgar and base as some. of them are, re.p~esent society to the operative. He .will not give them up, and I think 'he is wise. Pure air is good, but no one wants to breathe it long alone. Independence isgood,but isolation is too heavy a pric.e '198 INDIVIDUAL LIBER TY to pay for it. Both pure air and independence must be recon ciled with society, or not many laborers will ever enjoy them. Luckily they can be and will be, though not by taxing land values. As for the idea that persons can be induced to be come barbarians from altruistic motives in sufficient numbers to a:ff'e'ct the labor market, it is one that I have no time to discuss. In one respect at least Mr. George is preferable to Mr. Curtis as an opponent: he usually deals in economic argu ment rather than sentimentalism.

Next came CCEgoist," who was pained at the frequent attacks on Henry George, and it required a discussion that continued through several numbers of Liberty to thresh out all the points at issue: My correspondent, who, !by the' way, is a highly intelligent man, and has a most clear understanding of the money ques tion, should point out the truths that I have derided before accusing me of deriding any. I certainly never have derided the truth contained in Ricardo's theory of rent. What I have derided is Henry George's proposal that a maiority of the people shall seize this rent by force and expend it for their own benefit, or perhaps for what they are pleased to consider the benefitof the minority. I have also derided many of the arguments by which Mr. George has attempted to justify this proposal, many of which he has used in favor of interest and other form.s of robbery, and his ridiculous pretense that he is a champion of liberty. But I have never disputed that, under the system of land monopoly, certain individuals get, in the form of rent, a great deal that they never earned by their labor, or that it would be a great blessing if some plan should be devised and adopted whereby this could, be prevented without violating the liberty of the individuaL I am con vinced, however, that the abolition of the money monopoly, and the refusal of protection to all land titles' except those of occupiers, would, by the emancipation of the, workingman from his present slavery to capital, reduce this evil to a very small fraction' of its present proportions, especially in cities, and that the remaining fraction would be the cause of no more inequality than arises from the unearned increment deINDIVIDU AL LIBERTY 199 rived by almost every industry from the aggregation of people or from that unearned 'increment of superior, natural ability which" even under the operation of the cost principle," will probably always enable some individuals to get higher wages than the' average rate. ,In all these' cases the· margin of differ encewilltend steadily to· decrease, but it is not likely in any of ,them to disappear altogether. Whether, after the abolition of the State, voluntary cooperators ,will resort tocQmmunistic lTIethods ,'~nthe hope ot ban~sh~ng even these vest~ges of' ~n: equality is a question for their own future consideration, and has.nothing whatever to do with· the scheme of Henry George. I For. my part, I should· be inclined. to regard, such·,a course as aJeap not from the frying-pan into the fire, but from a Turk ish bath into the nethermost hell. 1 take no pleasure in atl tacking Mr. George, but shall probably pursue my present policy until he 'cop.descends to answer and refute my argu ments,if he can, oir gives some satisfactory reason for declin ingto do so~ Egoist's acquaintance with Lib.erty is of comparatively te cent date, but it is hard to understand how, he could have failed to find out f~om it that, in opposing all government, it so defines the word as to exclude the very thing which Egoist considers ideal government. It has been stated in these col umns I know not how many times that government, Archism, invasion, are used here as equivalent terms; that whoever in vades, individual or State,goyerns and is an Archist; and that whoever defends against invasion, individual or voluntary association, opposes government and is an Anarchist. Now,.a voluntary association doing equity woul~ not be an invader, but a defender against invasion, and might include in its de fensive 'operations the protection of th~ occupiers of land.

With this explanatio~, does Egoist perce~ve any lack of har mony in my statements? Assuming, then, protection by' such a method, occupiers would be sure, no rnatter how covetous others might be. .But now the question recurs: What is equity in the matter of land occupancy? I admit at once that the enjoyment by individ;.tals of increment which they do not earn,is not equity. On ,the other hand, I insist that. the con fiscationof such increment by the State (not a voluntary. as sociation) .andits expenditure for public purposes, while it 200 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y might be a little nearer equity practically in that the benefits would be enjoyed (after a fashion) by a larger number of persons, would be exactly as far from it theoretically, inas much as the increment no more belongs equally to the public at large than to the individual landholder, and would still be a long way from it even practically, for the minority, not being allowed to spend its share of the increment in its own way, would be just as truly robbed as if not allowed to spend it at all. A voluntary association in which the land-holders should consent to contribute the increment to the association's treasury, and in which all the. members should agree to settle the method of its dispositi6n by ballo~, would be equitable enough, but would be a short-sighted, wasteful, and. useless complication. A system of occupying ownership, however, accompanied by no legal power to collect rent, but coupled with the abolition of the State-guaranteed monopoly of money, thus making capital readily available, would distrib ute the increment naturally and quietly among its rightful owners. If it should not work perfect equity, it would at least effect a sufficiently close approximation to it, and without trespassing at all upon the individualities of any. Spots are uchoice" now very largely because of monopoly, and those which, under a system of free land and free money, should still remain choice for other reasons would shed their benefits upon all, just in the same way that choice countries under free trade will, as Henry George shows, make other countries more prosperous. When people see that such would be the result of this system, it is hardly likely that many of them will have to be coerced into agreeing to it. I see no point to Egoist's analogy in the first sentence of his last paragraph, un less he means to deny the right of the individual to become a banker. A more pertinent analogy would be a comparison of the George scheme for the confiscation of rent with a system ·of individual banking of which the State should confiscate the profits.

Under the influence of competition the best and cheapest protector, like the best and cheapest tailor, would doubtless get the greater part of the business. It is conceivable even that he might get the whole of it. But if he should, it would be by his virtue. as a protector, not by his power as a tyrant.

I ND 1 V I D U ALL I B E R T Y 2.01 He would be kept at his best by the p,ossibility of competition and the fear of it; and the source of. power. would. always re main, not with him, but with his patrons, who would exercise it, not by voting him down or by forcibly putting another in his place, but by withdrawing their patronage. Such. a state of things, far from showing the impossibility of Anarchy, would be Anarchy itself, and would have little or nothing in common with what now goes by the name CCequitable demo . "oc::rat1c g(;)vern:rnent. If •Hit can be shown that the value of· the protection to the possession of, land equals its economicrent,:J:) the demonstra tion .will be interesting. Tome it seems that the measure of such value must often include many other factors than economic rent. A manm~y own a home the economic· rent of which is zero, but to which he is deeply attached by many tende+ memories. Is. the value of protection in his possession oithat home zero? But perhaps Egoist means the exchange value of protection. If so, I answer that, under free compe tition, .the exchange· value. of protection, like· the exchange value of everything else, would be. its cost, which might in any given case be more or less than the economic rent. The 'condition of receiving protection would be. the same as the condition of receiving beefsteak,-namely, ability and will ingness to pay the cost thereof.

If I am right, the payment of rent, then, would not be an essential feature· in the contract between the land;..holder and the protector. It is conceivable, however, though in my judg ment unlikely, that it might be found an advantageous fea ture. If so, protectors adopting that form of contract would distance· their competitors. But if one· of these protectors should ever say to land-holders ttSignthis contract; if you do not, I not only will refuse you protection, .but I will myself invade you and annually confiscate a.portion of your earnings equal to the economic·.rent of your land," I incline. to •the opinion that Hintelligent people" would so()ner or later, Uby the process of natural selection," evolve into Anarchy by rallying around these land-holders for the formatioR of a .new social and· protective system, which would subordinate the pooling of economic rents to the securifyof each individ,ual in •the possession of the raw materials which he uses and the disposition of the· wealth which he thereby produces.

202 I ND I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y If government should be abruptly and entirely abolished to-morrow, there would probably ensue a series of physical conflicts about land and many other things, ending in re action and a revival of tl'e old tyranny. But if the abolition of government shall take place gradually, beginning with the downfall of the money and land monopolies and extending thence into one field after another, it will be accompanied by such a constant acquisition and steady spreading of social truth that, when the time shall come to apply the voluntary principle in the supply of police protection, the people will rally as promptly and universally to the support of the pro tector who acts most nearly in accordance with the prin ciples of social science as they now rally to the side of the assaulted man against his would-be murderer. In that case no s~rious conflict can arise.

Egoist neglects to consider my statement in reply to him in the last issue of Liberty, to the effect that the source of the protector's power lies precisely in the patronage. The pro tector who is most patronized will, therefore, be the strongest; and the people will endow with their power the protector who is best fitted to use it in the administration of justice. If the masses, or any large section of them, after having come to an understanding and acceptance of Anarchism, should then be induced by the sophistry of tyrants to reject it again, despotism would result. This is perfectly true. No Anarchist ever dreamed of denying it. Indeed, the Anarchist's only hope lies in his confidence that people who have once intelligently accepted his principle will ((stay put." The present State cannot be an outgrowth of Anarchy, because Anarchy, in the philosophic sense of the word, has never existed. For Anarchy, after all, means something more than the possession of liberty. Just as Ruskin defines wealth as ttthe possession of the valuable by the valiant," so Anarchy may be defined as the possession of liberty by libertarians, that is by those who know what liberty means. The barbaric liberty out of which the present State developed was not Anarchy in this se'nse at all, for those who possessed it had not the slightest conception of its blessings or of the line that divides it from tyranny.

Nothing can have value in the absence of demand for it. Therefore the basis of the demand cannot be irrelevant in IN D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y 203 considering value. Now,. it. is manifest that the demand· for protection in the possession of land does not Eest solely upon exc-ess.of fertility or commercial advantageo! situation .. On the contrary, it rests, in an ever-rising degree and among an ever-increasing proportion of the. people, upon the love of security and peace, the love of home, the •love of b~autiful scenery, and many other wholly sentimental motives. Inas much, then, as the strength of some of the motives for the de mand. of protection bears often no re1ationto economic renr, the value of such protection is not necessarily equal to eco nomic rent. Which is the contrary. of Egoist's proposition. Egoist's definition of the right of possession of land rests onanassumprion which Anarchists deny,-namely, that there is an entity known as the community which is the rightful owner of all land. Here we touch the central pointof the discussion. Here I take issue with Egoist, and maintain that Ctthecommunity" is,a nonentity, that it has no existence, and that what is called tPe community is simply a combination of individuals having no prerogatives beyond those of the indi viduals themselves. This combination· of individuals has no better title to the land than· any single individual outside of it; and the argument which Egoist uses in behalf of the com..

munitythis. outside individual, if he but had the strength to back it up, might· cite with equal propriety in his own be half. He might say: cCThe right of possessionof land consists in an agreement On my part to forego the ·.specialadvantages which. the use of such land ~ffords to· an undisturbed pos sessor. It represents a giving-up, by me, of that which I could obtain for myself,-the cost tome being certainly that which I have relinquished, and equals in value the special ad vantage which is the cause of rent. In view of this, it seems to me that affording this protection is to me an expense equal to the rent." And thereupon he might proceed to collect this rent from the community as compensation' for the protection which he afforded it in allowing it to occupy the land. But in •his case the supposed condition is lacking; he has not the strength necessary to enforce such an argument as this. The community, or combination of individuals, has this strength.

Its only superiority to the single individual, then, in relation. to the,land, consists in the right of the strongest, __a perfectly valid right, . I admit,· but one. which, if exercised, leads to 204 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y serious results. If the community proposes to exercise its right of the strongest, 'why stop with the collection of eco nomic rent? Why not make the individual its slave out right? Why. not strip him of everything but the bare necessities of life? Why recognize him at all, in any way, except ~s a tool to be used in the interest of the community? In a word, why not do precisely what capitalism is doing now, or else what State Socialism proposes to do when it gets control of affairs? But if the community does not pro prose to go to this extreme; if it proposes to recognize the individual and treat with 'him,-then it must forego entirely its right of the strongest, and be ready to contract on a basis of equality of rig,hts, by vrhich the individual's title to the land he uses and to what he gets out of it shall beheld valid as against the world. Then, if the individual consents to pool his rent with otg.ers, well and good; but, if not why, then, he must be left alone. And it will not do for the community to turn upon him and demand the economic rent of his land as compensation for the Ctprotection" which it affords him in thus letting him alone. As well might the burglar say to the householder: CtHere, I can, if I choose, enter your house one of these fine nights and carry off your valuables; I therefore demand that you immediately hand them over to me as compensation for the sacrifice which I make and the protection which I afford you in not doing so."

Egoist asserted that it would be difficult to show that the occupier of superior land. would be entitled to that part of the production from his land that would be in excess of what, with an equal application of labor, could be produced from inferior land. Mr. Tucker replied: PRECISELY as difficult as it would be to show that the man of superior skill (native, not acquired) who produces in the ratio of five hundred to another's three hundred is equitably entitled to this surplus exchange value. There is no more reason why we should pool the results of our lands than the results of our hands. And to compel such pooling is as med dlesome and tyrannical in one case as in the other. That school of Socialistic economists which carries Henry George's INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 205 idea to its conclusions, confiscating not only rent but interest andpfofitand equalizing wages,-a school of which G. Ber nard Shaw may be taken as a typical representative,-is more logical •than the school to which Mr. George. and Egoist be lOflg, because it completes. the application of the tyrannical principle.

The. cultivator of land who does· not ask protection does not. expect the community. to secure, him the opportunity referred· to. He simply expects. the. community not to de prive him of this opportunity. He does not •say to the com munity: CCHere! an invader. is trying· to oust me from· my land;c9me and help ~e to drive him off." He says to the community: ((My right to this land is as good as yours. In fact it is better, for I am ,already occupyihg and cultivating it-. I demand of. you simply that you shall not disturb me. If you impose ,.certain burdens upon me .by threatening me with dispossession,.I, being. weaker than you, must of course submit temporarily. But ·in the mean time I shall teach the principle of liberty to the individuals of which you are com posed, and by and by, when they see that you are oppressing me, they will espouse my, cause, and your. tyrannical yoke will speedily be lifted from my neck."

If the cost principle of.· value cannot be realized other wise than. by compulsion, then it had better •not be realized. For my part, I do not believe that it is possible or highly important to realize it (tbsolutely and completely. But it is both· possible and highly important to ~ffect its approximate realization. So much can be effected without compulsion,-in fact, can only be effected by at least partial· abolition of com pulsion,-and so much will be sufficient. By far the larger part of the violations of the cost principle-probably nine tep.ths-resultfrom artificial, law-made inequalities; only .a small portion . arise from natural inequalities. Abolish. the artificial monopolies of money and land, and interest, profit, and .. the rent of buildings will almost entirely disappear; ground rents will no longer .f1ow into a few hands; ·and prac tically the only •inequality remaining will. be the slight dis parity of products due to superiority of soil and skill. Evett this disparity will soon develop a tendency to decrease. Under the new economic •conditions •and enlarged opportunities. re sulting from, freedom of credit and land classes will tend to 206 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y disappear; great capacities will not be developed in a few at the expense of stunting those of the many; talents will ap proximate towards equality, though their variety will be greater than ever; freedom of locomotion will be vastly in creased; the toilers will no longer be anchored in such large numbers in the present commercial centres, and thus made subservient to the city landlords; territories and resources never before utilized will become easy of access and develop ment; and under all these influences the disparity above men tioned will decrease to a minimum. Probably it will never disappear entirely; on the other hand, it can never become intolerable. It must always remain a comparatively trivial consideration, certainly never to be weighed for a moment in the same scale with liberty.

It was only because I conceived it out of the question that Egoist, in maintaining that ((the value of protection in the possession of land is equal to its economic rent," could be discussing value without regard to the law of equal liberty as a prior condition, or soberly advocating the exercise of the right of mig~t regardless of· equity, that I interpreted his words as implying a superiority in equity in the com munity's title to land over that of the individual,-a superi ority other than that of might; a superiority, in short, other than that by which the highwayman relieves the traveller of his goods. I was bound to suppose (and later statements in his present letter seem to strengthen the supposition) that he looked upon the Ugiving up, by the community," of its right to land as the giving up of a superior equitable right; for otherwise, in demanding value in return for this sacrifice, he would be compelled in logic to demand, on behalf of a burglar, value in return for the sacrifice made in declining to carry off a householder's wealth by stealth. But Egoist repudi ates this supposition (though he does not follow the logic of his repudiation), and I must take him at his word. He thus lays himself open. to a retort which I could not otherwise have made. In his previous letter he criticised me for making sentiment a factor in the estimation of value. Whether or not this was a transgression, on my part, of the limits of economic discussion, he certainly ras transgressed them much more seriously in· making force such a factor. Exchange im plies liberty; where there is no liberty there is no exchange, INDIVIDUAL LIBERTy' 2.07 hut· only robbery; and robbery is foreign to political economy.

At .·.least one point, •however, is. gained. Between Egoist and myself all question of any superior equitableright of the com 111unityis put aside forever~ •Equity not considered,· we agree that th~ land belongs to· the man or body of men strong enough to hold it. And for all practical purposes his definition of tcownership" suits me, though I view ownership less as· the I:l:result of. the ability of the··community to· maintain posses siort." ~l1d ~n ~pplic~tion: of this result CC£orthe beneht o£ individuals," than as a result of the inability of the com munity· -to maintain itself in peace and ·security otherwise than by the recognition of only such relations between man and wealth as are in harmony with the law of equal liberty. In other words, ownership arises not from superiority of the community to the individual, but from ~he inferiority of the community to the facts and. powers of nature.

Egoist here stated that he would not agree Uthat· the right of the strongest will lead· to serious results, except when. applied to create an inequitable relation between individuals"; so Mr. Tucker rejoined: HERE we have an acknowledgment ofa principle of equity and a contemplation of its observance by.the rnighty,which goes to sustain my original supposition, despite Egoist's pro test. It implies an abandonment by the mighty of their right. of domination and a willingness to .contract with the weak. Now, I agree that the contracts thus entered into will not lead to· serious results, unless they create inequitable rela tions between individuals. But the first of all equities is not equality of material well-being, but equality of liberty; and if the contract places the former equality· before the latter, it will lead to serious results, for it logically necessitates the arbitrary .leveling of all material 'inequalities, whether these arise from differences of soil or differences of skill. To di rectlyenforce equality of material.well-being is meddlesome, invasive,· •and oftensive,but to directly enforce equality of liberty is simply protective and defensive. The latter is nega tive, and aims only· t<J;prevent the establishment of artificial ineq~alities; the former is positive, and aims at direct and 2.08 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y active abolition of natural inequalities. If the former is the true policy, then it is as equitable to enforce the pooling of interest, profit, and wages as the ·pooling of rent. If the latter is the true policy, we have only to see to it that no artificial barriers against individual initiative are constructed.

Under such conditions, if the natural inequalities tend to dis appear, as they surely will, then so much the better. In speaking of skill. as ((inseparably attached to the indi vidual," Egoist surely does not mean to argue the impossi bility of seizing and distributing the results of skill, for that would be a ridiculous contention. Then he can only mean that there is something sacred about the individual which the mighty are bound to respect. But this again is inconsistent with his theory of· the right of might. If the strongest is to exercise his might, then he need stop at nothing but the im possible; if, on the other hand, he contracts with the weaker on a basis of equal liberty, then both strong and weak must be left secure in their possession of the products of their labor, whether aided by superior skill or superior soil. If Malthusianism is true, it is as true after the pooling of rent as before. If the encroachment of population over the limit of the earth's capacity is inevitable, then there is no solution of the social problem. Pooling the rent or organizing credit would only postpone the catastrophe. Sooner or later the masses would find nothing to share but the curses of war ratper than the ttblessings of peace," and at that stage it would matter but little to them whether they shared equally or unequally.

I hold that, in case rent were to be nationalized by force, liberty would be incomplete; and liberty must be complete, whatever happens. I hold that superiority will always rule; and it is only when real superiority is known and recognized as such, and therefore allowed to have its perfect work unresisted and unimpeded, that the minimum of evil will result. The really serious results are those that follow the attempts of inferiority, mistaking itself for· superiority, to fly in the face of the real article. In other words, when individuals or majorities, seeing that they are stronger for the time. being than other individ uals or minorities, suppose that they are therefore stronger than natural social laws and act in violation of them, disaster IN D I V I D U ALL IB E R T Y 209 is sure to.fQllow. These laws .are' the' really mighty, and'they will· always prevail. The first of them is,.the. la;w of equal liberty. It is by the observance of this law, I am persuaded, ratherthan by (tan equal share in the transferable opportuni ties," that the' ultimate Uintelligence of the people" willre move Uevery reasonable cause of complaint."

I find so little attempt to meet the various considerations Which I have advanced that I .have not much to add byw,ay of comment. The monopoly. of mining gold at a particular point exists in the physical constitution of things, and a pool ing of the results thereof (which would qe a virtual de struction .of the monopoly). can only be directly achieved in one of two ways,__lfiutual agreement or an invasion of lib erty. The monopoly of inventors and authors, on the con trary, has no existence at all except by mutl.1al agreement or an illvasionof liberty. It seems tome the difference between the two is su$ciently .clear.Egoist's st~temer1t of the law of equal liberty is satisfactory. Standing UpOJ1, it, I would repel, by force if necessary, the confiscator of ! rent on the ground that he utakes a' liberty at' the expense of others." I have no objection to forcible measures against transgressors, but the question recurs as to who are the transgressors.' If the piece of. land which I am 'using happens to be' better than my neighbor's, I do not consider myself a transgressor on that account; but if my neighbor digs some of my potatoes and carries them off, I ~ertainly consider him a transgressor" even though he may na~e his plunder economic rent.,. But, Egoist, viewing this case, considers me the transgressor and my neigh bor the honest man. I believe that education in liberty will bring people. to my view rather than his. If it, doesn't, I shalrhave to succumb. It is to be noted that Egoist makes noturther reference to my argument regarding skill. I urged that the. levelling of inequalities in land logically leads to the levelling of inequalities in skill. Ego~st replied that skill is in separably. attached to the individual, while land is not. I rejoined. that· the results of skill are not inseparably attac~ed to the individual, and that the right of might recognizes noth ingsacred ,about the individual. To this Egoist makes no reply •. Hence my argument that the nation,alization of rent logically •• involves, the, most complete State •Socialism and minute regulation of the individual stands unassailed.

210 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY It has been stated and restated in these columns, until I have grown weary of the reiteration, that voluntary associa tion for the purpose of preventing transgression of equal liberty will be perfectly in keeping with Anarchism, and will probably exist under Anarchism until it Hcosts more than it comes to"; that the provisions of such associations will be executed by such agents as it may select in accordance with such methods as it may prescribe, provided such methods do not themselves involve a transgression of the liberty of the innocent; that such association will restrain only the criminal (meaning by criminal the transgressor of equal liberty) ; that non-membership and non-support of it is not a criminal act; but that such a course nevertheless deprives the non-member of any title to the benefits of the association, except such as come to him incidentally and unavoidably. It has also been repeatedly affirmed that, in proposing to abolish the State, the Anarchists expressly exclude from their definition of the State such associations as that just referred to, and that who ever excludes from his definition and championship of the State everything except such associations has no quarrel with the Anarchists beyond a verbal one. I should trust that the <Cunderstanding on these points" is now clear, were it not that experience has convinced me that my command of the English language is not adequate to the construction of a foundation for such trust.

The fact that Egoist points out a similarity between the monopoly of a gold-mine and that of an invention by no means destroys the difference between them which I pointed out,-this difference being that, whereas in the former case it is impossible to prevent or nullify the monopoly without restricting the liberty of the monopolist, in the latter it is impossible to 'sustain it without restricting the liberty of the would-be competitors. To the Anarchist, who believes in the minimum of restriction upon liberty, this difference is a vital one,-quite sufficient to warrant him in refusing to pre vent the one while refusing to sustain the other. Egoist says that Han occupier is not a transgressor of equal liberty unless he claims and receives the right of undisturbed possession without giving an equivalent in return." Anarch ism holds, on the contrary, in accordance with the principles stated at the outset of this rejoinder, that an occupier is not INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 211 a transgressor even •if, not claiming it, or paying for it, he does receive this right. .

The assertion that ccthedistribution of skill is absolutely independent of socia:! agreement" is absolutely erroneous. In proof of this I need. only 'call attention to the apprenticeship regulations of the trade unions and the various educational 'systems that •are or have been in vogue, not only as evidence of what has already. been done in the direction of' controlling the'distribution of skill, hut 'also as an indication of what more may be' done.if State Socialism ever gets a chance to [try upon humanity the interesting experiments which it propd,ses. On the other hand, the colle~tion' of rent by the, collectivity does not ,necessarily affect the distribution ofland~ Land titles will remain, unchanged as long as the tax (or rent) shall be paid. But it does distribute the products resulting from differences of land, and it is'1ike'wisepossible to ,. distribute the products resulting from differenceso£ skill. Now until this position is overthrown (and I defy ,anyone to successfully dispute it), it is senseless to liken C(dissatisfaction with the distribution of skill" to uthe crying' of a child because it cannot fly." The absurdity of this analogy, in which· the pos sibilityo£ distributing products is ignored,would have been apparent if it had been immediately followed by the admission of this possibility which Egoist places several paragraphs.

further down. To be sure, he declares even there that it is impossible, but only in the sense in wpich Proudhon declares interest ..bearing property impossible,-that. of ,producing anti-social results which eventually' kill it or compel its abandonment. I contend that, similarly anti-social results will follow any attempt to distribute by law the products ~rising from differences of land; and ,I, ask, as I have ,asked before without obtaining an answer, why the col1ectivity~ if in its right of might it may see fit to distribute the rent of land, may not find it equally expedient to distribute the tent of skill; why it may not reduce all differences of wealth to art absolute level; in short, why it may ',not create the '; worst and most complete tyranny the world has ever known? In regard to the attitude of Anarchistic associations towards rent and, its collection, I would say that they might~ consist entlywiththe law of equal freedom, except from 1:heirjuris diction whatever, cases or forms of transgression they should 212 INDIVIDUAL LIBER TY not think it expedient to attempt to prevent. These excep tions would probably be defined in their .Constitutions. The members could, if they sa.w fit, exempt the association from enforcing gambling debts or rent contracts. On the other hand, an association organized· op. a different basis which should enforce such debts or contracts would not thereby become itself a transgressor. But any association would be a transgressor which should attempt to prevent the fulfilment of rent contracts or to confiscate rent a~ld distribute it. Of the three possibilities specified by Egoist the third is the only one that tends to establish an artificial inequality; and that the worst of all inequalities,-the inequality of liberty, or perhaps it would be more accurate to call it the equality of slavery. The first or second would at the worst fail to en tirely abolish natural inequalities.

The possibility of valuable land becoming vacant is hardly worth consideration. Still, if any occupant of valuable land should be foolish enough to quit it without first selling it, the estate would be liable to seizure by the first comer, who would immediately have a footing similar to that of other land holders. If this be favoritism, I can only say that the world is .not destined to see the time when some things will not go by favor. Egoist's argument that free competition will tend to dis tribute rent by a readjustment of wages is exactly to my pllr pose. Have 1 not told him from the start that Anarchists will gladly welcome any tendency to equality through liberty? But Egoist seems to object to reaching equality by this road. It must be reached by law or not at all. If reached by com petition, ((competition would be harassed." In other words, competition would harass competition. This wears the aspect of another absurdity. It is very likely that competitors would harass competitors, but competition without harassed com petitors is scarcely thinkable. It is even not improbable that «class distinctions" would be developed, as Egoist says.

Workers would find the places which their capacities, condi tions, and inclinations qualify them to fill, and would thus be classified, or divided into distinct classes. Does Egoist think that in such an event life would not be worth living? Of course the words ((harass" and ((class distinction" have an ugly sound, and competition is decidedly more attractive when INDIVIDUAL LIBER,TY 2.13 associated instead with ttexcel" and Horganization." But Anarchists never recoil from disagreeable/terms. Only their opponents are to be frightened by words and phrases. PROPERTY UNDER ANARCHISM A discussion in The Free Life . (Lonpon) between its editor, Mr. Auberon Herbert, and an Anarchistic corre spondent, Mr. Albert Tarn, involved an objection to Anarchism that it· would throw property titles (espe cially .land·titles) ·into hopeless confusion, which led Mr. Tucker to enter the controversy i~ Liberty in the fol lowing. manner: THIS .' criticism· of Anarchism, reduced. to its essence, is seen to· be twofold. ,First, the complaint is that it has no fixed standardo£ .acquiring .or owning. Se:cond, the complaint is that· it necessarily' results in a fixed standard .of acquiring or owning .•Evidently Mr. Herbert is a.veryhard man to·please.

Before he criticises Anarchism further, I. must insist that 'he make up his mind whether he himself wants or does not want a fixed standard. And whatever his! decision, his criticism falls. For if he wants a fixed standard, •that which he may adopt is as •liable to become a C(rigidi crystalline custom" as any rthatAnarchism may lead to. And i£ he. does not want a fixed' standard, then how can he complain of Anarchism for having none? If it were my main object to emerge from this dispute vic torious, I might well·leave· Mr. Herbert in. the queer predica ment in which his logic has placed him. But as.I .am really anxious. to win him .to the Anarchistic view, I shall try to show him. that the tear of scramble and rigidity .with which Anarchism inspires him has little or no foundation. Mr. Herbert, •.as I understand him, ·.believes in. voluntary association, voluntarily supported, for the defence of person and· property. Very well; let us suppose that he has' won his battle, and. that such a' state of thingsexistse Suppose that all:tnun~cipalities •h~ve .adopted the voluntary principle, and ~I4 INDIVIDUAL LIBER TY that compulsory taxation has been abolished. Now, after this, let us suppose further that the Anarchistic view that occu pancy and use should condition and limit landholding be comes the prevailing view. Evidently then these municipali ties will proceed to formulate and enforce this view. What the formula will be no one can foresee. But continuing with our suppositions, we will say that they 'decide to protect no one in the possession of more than ten acres. In execution of this decision, they, on October I, notify all holders of more than ten acres within their limits that, on and after the fol lowing January I, they will cease to protect them in the possession of more than ten acres, and that, as a condition of receiving even that protection, each must make formal dec laration. on or before December I of the specific ten-acre plot within his present holding which he proposes to personally occupy and use after January I. These declarations having been made, the municipalities 'publish them and at the same time notify landless persons that out of the lands thus set free each may secure protection in the possession of any amount up to ten acres after January I by appearing on December 15, at a certain hour, and making declaration of his choice and intention of occupancy. Now, says Mr.

Herbert, the scramble will begin. Well, perhaps it will. But what of it? When a theatre advertises to sell seats for a star performance at a certain hour, there is a scramble to secure tickets. When a pro~perous city announces that on a given day it will accept loans from individuals up to a certain aggregate on attractive terms, there is a scramble to secure the bonds. As far as I know, nobody complains of these scrambles as unfair. The scramble begins and the scramble ends, and the matter is settled. Some inequality still remains, but it has been reduced to a minimum, and everybody has had an equal chance with the rest. So it will be with this land scramble. It may be conducted as peacefully as any other scramble, and those who are frightened by the word are simply the victims of a huge bugbear. And the terror of rigidity is equally groundless. This rule of ten-acre possession, or any similar one that may be adopted, is no more rigid crystalline custom than is Mr. Herbert's own rule of protecting title transferred by purchase and sale.

:Any rule is rigid less by the rigidity of its terms than by INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 2.15 'the rigidity of its enforcement .. Now it is precisely in the tempering of the rigidity of enforcement that one of the chief excellences of Anarchism consists. Mr.• Herbert must re member that under Anarchism all rules a.n?, laws will be little more than suggestions for the guidance of. juries" and that all disputes~ whether. about land or anything else, will be submit ted to j~ries which will judge not only the facts,· but the,law~ the just)ce' of the law, its applicability to the given circum stances~land the penalty or damage to be inflicted.b~c:1us~ of its infra.ction.What.· better safeguard against. rigidity couid there b~ •.• than this? tcMachinery for altering" the law, •.in deed!.Why, under Anarchism the law will be so.flexible that itwilLspape itself to every emergency and need no alteration.

And it, Will then be regarded as just in proportion to its flexi bility,i*stea~ ,of as now in proportion to. its rigidity. OCC'QPANCYAND USE VERSUS THE'SINGLE TAX In iDecember, 1894, Mr. Steven T. Byington, still a Singl~ Taxer, started a discussion with the editor of Liber1y (Mr. John Beverley Robinson and Miss Katharine J. M~sson participating) on certain factors in· the land tenur~ and rent problems. Mt. Byington, an expert math~matician, carried the discussion into quite an intri. cate~aze of figures, which· are rather hard for· the reader toun~erstand without complete. reproduction, here im possible. But, since· Mr. Tucker's replies' embodied some very pertinent and valuable explanations ·and arguments, it has. been attempted to give as many· of these as ,will be co~erent without a full presentation of the other side. The discussion extends over a,period of more.than a year: IT is not my purpose to lose myself in the mathematical maze through which Comrades Robinson. and Byington are nowgropingly. threading their. way., But. I may point out to the latter, anent the dire perplexities. iu which he has involved III ',. coaf•miners, that political .econqmyknows not only a 2.16 INDIVIDUAL LIBER TY law of diminishing returns, but a law of increasing returns as well, and that he has ignored this branch of the law in the operation of his second mine.

In the first mine, where 100 men are already at work at the time of Mr. Byington's hypothesis, it may fairly be supposed that the law of diminishing returns begins to apply; but in the second mine, where not even one man works until there are 110 at work in the first, it is equally fair to suppose that the law of increasing returns will be in force until here also there are 100 workers. In that case the second mine, instead of yielding (as Mr. Byington presumes) one workman $900, two $1790, three $2.670, &c.) would yield one workman $900, two $1810, three $2730, &c. This little fact brings a won derful change ov~ the spirit of Mr. Byington's dreadful dream. For no sooner will his I 11th miner have begun to work the second mine alone than he will be joined by the I loth, and the I09th, and the Io8th, and the I07th, &c., &c.) each new accession having a tendency to increase the earnings of the I I men and to reduce .the swollen incomes of the original 100, and the movement as a whole achieving, if not a restoration of absolute equality, at least a considerable ap proach to it. Which again impels me to recall the remark of Bastiat that there are things that we see and things that we don't see.

Again: the hypothesis is unwarrantably violent in predi cating the existence of but one first-quality mine. As a matter of fact, there would in most cases be a number of superior mines nearly on a level in point of quality, and as the demand for coal increased, these mines would compete to secure extra lahor, the competition forcing them to pay for this labor as much as could be paid without reducing the $1000 income enjoyed by each of the original occupants. Still again: absolute freedom being the condition of the hypothesis, these mines would compete for this labor, not only with each other, but with all the other branches of in dustry newly opened or increased in activity by free money, free land, and free conditions generally, which would make it still less possible to obtain labor without awarding it its full product. And further: it is assuming too much to say that a fair interpretation of the terms occupancy and use could exclude I N D I V I D U ALL IBE R T Y2.I7: all but 100 men from the mine in question.. Here the' eco nomic problem becomes complicated with engineering prob lems which I am incompetent to>discuss; but it is not at all sure that the theory of occupancy and use would enable any hundred men to get the grip on ,subterranean. riches that. is here' pres'4med.

And-last consideration of .aU-mining is but one, and the smallest, of the four great .classes of labor, and the others' are not relieved in the s~me degree from the eqll~lizing influence of competition; so that, were a considerable inequality proven a necessity of mining, it would not follow that there would be as great inequality, or necessarily any at all, in agricul ture,manufactures and commerce. Thus you see, Mr. Byington, that, do your little sum as nicely as you will, there are still a Jew other things to· be thought of.. It must not .be supposed,. however, that I share Mr. Robin son's view that economic rent is nota reality. I believe that economic rent exists now, and would continue under free dom, but then with a tendency to decrease and a' possibility (though not a probability) of ,ultimate disappearance. In any event, taking the worst 'vie'w of the matter, it would be distributed among actual. occupants and, users,-a vastly greater number than now enjoy it,-which would be much better fQr all than to distribute it among those who benefit by political jobbery,. or .~mong the 'people themselves through rhe agency' ofa State landlord, which would speedily become, by successive grants and usurpations of power,.·a State money lord, a State industry-lord, a State education-lord, a State religion-lord, \?- State love-lord, and· a State, art-lord.

Equality if we can get it, kut Liber,ty at any rate! By compelling Mr. Byington to recpgnize the law of in creasing returns. in both mines instead! of in one alone, I at the.same time compel him to assume, iDj order to overcome the tendency of this law toward equality, ~ far greater and more improbable inferiority in the quality o~ the second mine than he attributed to that mine in his first hypothesis. And, as these sudden drops in quality are not, as' a g~neral thing, typical. of the •actual 'fact, Mr. Byington's new figures greatly weaken his argument.

;ZI8 INDIVIDU AL LIBERTY It is not altogether a question of how much these laborers are worth to employers engaged in coal-mining. Their worth to employers in other lines must be taken into account. Under freedom, when the availability of capital will furnish new avenues for labor, Mr. Byington's I 11th man who goes to work in the second mine for $900 instead of accepting offers of $1000 from men in other lines of business will be a fool who deserves his fate. But, says Mr. Byington, the demand for coal finally making it worth while to pay the I I I th man $1000 to go to work in the second mine, this demand and consequent rise in price will correspondingly increase the reward of the operators of the first mine, and the inequality will be as great as ever .. Which means, at the worst, that, while none are paid any less than formerly, some are paid more. Dreadful thing! As Mr. Donisthorpe has pointed out in a way that evidently appeals with force to my Christian friend, Mr. Byington, the accidental benefiting of another is, ctin the present state of Christian fraternity, a consummation to be carefully shunned."

Whether the neighboring farmers should sink shafts them selves or part with their land to others wishing to do so, in either case there would be an introduction of a new competi tive factor tending toward equality. The article to which Mr. Byington now replies was one calling his attention to factors in the rent problem which he seemed to neglect. The liability of access to the first coal vein through a new shaft was one of these factors, and Mr. Byington's answer does not get rid of it. His nearest approach to it is a suggestion of the Malthusian argument, to which I can only respond that, if Malthusianism be true, it militates as strongly against the single tax as against any other reformatory proposal. I may add-though this matter is not strictly pertinent to the pres ent discussion, but an engrafting upon it of an old discussion -that I would not, under any ordinary circumstances, oust an occupant and user to get either mining land or a right of way thereto. But I can conceive of circumstances, not only in the relations of men to the land, but in the relations of men to each other, where I would, for the moment, trample ruthlessly upon all the principles by which successful society must as a general thing be guided. I would advise Mr. ByingIN D I VIDUAL L I BE R TY 2. 1 9 ton· to consider for a while whether he himself .• is superior to necessity before. too confidently assuming that there is .any single rule to which he can always conform his conduct.

I know of no domain that. occupies a higher eminence than that.occupied· •• by the domain which says to· every user of land: UHand over to me all that your land yields you over and above ·what the ·most barren of wastes .. yields to your most unfortunate fellowman, or else I will throw you neck .and heels into the street/' The tteminent domain" that I believe in, if Mr. Byington insists on so denominating it, would. as sume no rights· in .any land whatsoever, but would simply decline to protect the dominion of anyone over land which he was not using. To· block up a narrow passage not regularly occupied. and used for purposes of travel is one thing; to barricade an im proved, claimed, and constantly used' highway is another thing. Admission of the former requires no reconciliation with denial of the latter. The .value of land under the present system of land tenure has no bearing whatever on my assertion that under freedom the equalizing influence of competition is felt less in mining than in other branches of labor. If A has a mine in which his day's labor will yield him ten per cent. more coal. than B's day's labor will yield B in another mine, A 'will derive ten per cent. more from the sale of his coal than B. will derive from the sale of his, •because all the. coal, assuming it to be of equal quality, will bring the same· price per ton,. so far as the mine-owner is concerned. But commercial com petition in cities is a different matter. In the lower and busy section of New York city there are perhaps a hundred drug ...

stores occupying sites which may vary slightly in suitability for the drug tr1tde, but all of which are excellent. In .the upper parts of the city there are other drug-stores, most of which occupy vastly inferior sites. There is always a stiff competition. in· progress between the·· down-town druggists, but, in spite of this, the high rents which they have to pay prevent them from putting their prices much below the prices prevailing up town. N ow, if the present· system of land tenure should be changed to one of occupancy and use, what would happen? Why, the·.down-town druggists, relieved.·.of the· burden of re·nt, vlould •lower their prices· in competition 2.2.0 I N D I V I D U ALL I BE R T Y with each other until all or nearly all the rent which they now pay landlords would be flowing into the pockets of their customers. The profits of the down-town druggist doing a large business at low prices could be little or no more than normal wages, and those of the up-town druggist doing a small business at high prices could be little or no less. In this typical commercial example competition under freedom shows a strong tendency to take from the occupants of superior sites their advantage. The occupants of inferior com mercial sites can in most cases obtain for their goods; prices proportionately higher, but the owner of a mine yielding an inferior quantity of coal can get no more per ton for his product than can his Inore fortunate rivals. This is the dif ference that I pointed out to Mr. Byington, and his remark regarding the present value of city land is no answer.

Certainly no land, except the very poorest, will be free under the single. tax, for every occupant of land that is good .for anything will have to pay tribute to the State. Evidently free land is one thing to. Mr. Byington and another thing to me. I consider a potato patch whose cultivator pays lio rent free land, even though it be a city corner-lot; and I should consider the same piece of land not free, but monopolized, if it were occupied by a confectioner obliged to pay tribute either to an individual or to the State. The man who plants himself in a passage-way simply takes up vacant land and becomes an occupant thereof in good faith for ordinary and legitimate purposes, and not with a view to unnecessarily and maliciously embarrassing and crippling others. But, though the intent were not malicious, if the result were not merely inconvenience for others but complete imprisonment, I should regard the emergency as sufficiently critical to warrant a violation of principle. Not for gods, devils, society, men or principles would I allow myself to be imprisoned, completely crippled, and virtually killed, if I could in any way avoid it. But I would suffer a great deal of embarrassment in order to avoid the violation of a principle the general observance of which I consider essen tial to the closest possible approximation to that social har mony which I deem of high value to myself.

By all means kick for your full product, Mr. Byington, and INDIVIDUAL LIBER TY 22.1 kick hard. I wish you to get it if you can, as I too wish to get mine. But I am· not willing to pay too· much for it.· I am not willing to part with my liberty_to get my full pro duct, unless that part of my produ~twhich I .do. get is insufficient to .keep me from starving.· And even then I per sonally .• might prefer death; I do not. know. Besides, Mr. Byington does not fairly represent his fellow Single-Taxers. He wants his. own product, but their chief worry is because their product goes in P4rt to a. ne~ohborW'hoxn.t:hey hat:e~ the landlord; and they will·be abundantly.satisfied when· it shall be taken frornthis hated neighbor and given to -another whom they love,-the tax-collector. Mr. Byington said that, whatever relief might come· from the opening of new mines, the needs of civilization would soon press upon the limits of these mines. This is simply a form of saying that, whatever new opportunities may be opened for labor, the tendency of population to outstrip the means of subsistence is sure to ultimately neutralize them. That is Malthusianism; and, if it is true, all economic reforms, in cluding .the Single Ta~, are a delusion and a snare.

I .have •not urged that society should make any exceptions in favor of the man who commits an invasion under circum stances that go far to excuse him. This would be a matter entirely for the jury. If I were on a. jury to try the case of a man who had stolen bread when starving, I wo:uld vote in favor of· a formal penalty, too light to b~ burdensome, and yet sufficient to stamp the act· as. invasive. The simple fact is this,-that necessity, and only neces sity, may excuse .thecoercion ·of the innocent. Now, neces sity knows no law, and it knows no uaimsu ; it does not in quire •whether the coercion to be exercised will be direct or indirect, incidental or essential; it just coerces, whether or no~ and because it. cannot do otherwise. I believe that all vacant land should be free in Mr. Bying ton's sense of the word,--that is, open to be freely occupied by any comer. I believe that all occupied land should. be free in my sense of the word,-that is, enjoyed by theoccu pant without payment of tribute to a nonoccupant. Whether the achievement of· these two ·freedoms will tend to reduce renta.lvalues\ we .shall kll;ow.better when Mr. Byingto11 has U See11 about those drug-stores."

2.22 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y In this sense [evicting occupants contrary to the prin ciple of liberty, under the plea of a higher law of necessity] I declare my willingness to stand for eminent domain~ But I insist that :NIr. Byington does not, as he claims, get rid of eminent domain, but on the contrary gives it the most rigor ousand universal application, when he proposes to exact ftom each land-occupant a portion of his product under penalty of eviction. I accept Mr. Byington's amendment. I think myself that it is better to exclude the matter of good faith. It is simpler and truer to say that any man who uses his land for the com mission of a plainly invasive act may be dispossessed and treated as a criminal. If the act committed is of a doubtful character, then the same rule applies here that applies to all other doubtful cases: that is, the troublesome party should be given the benefit of the doubt, either until his course be.comes clearly invasive, when he should be dispossessed as an invader, or until it becomes a peremptory menace to the community's safety, when he should be dispossessed in the name of necessity, though it be still doubtful whether he is an invader.

I deny that the thing fundamentally desirable is the mini mum of invasion. The ultimate end of human endeavor is the minimum of pain. We aim to decrease invasion only because, as a rule, invasion increases the total of pain (mean ing, of course, pain suffered by the ego, whether directly or through sympathy with others.) But it is precisely my con tention that this rule, despite the immense importance which I place upon it, is not absolute; that, on the contrary, there are exceptional cases where invasion~that is, coercion of the non-invasive-:-Iessens the aggregate pain. Therefore coercion of the non-invasive, when justifiable at all, is to be justified on the ground that it secures, not a minimum of invasion, but a minimum of pain. The position, then,. which IMr. Byington seems to take that coercion of the non-invasive ~is allowable only as an unavoidable incident in the coercion of invaders, and not allowable when it is an unavoidable incident in the prevention. of impending cataclysmic disaster not the work of invaders, is seen at once to be inconsistent with my jundamental postulate-to me axiomatic-that the ultimate INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 2.23 {end is the minimum of pain. If Mr. Byington believes that , the minimum of invasion, is always desirable,' I summon him (to. deal specifically with the case cited by me in my discussion 1with Mr. Yarros,-thecase, that is, of a burning city which-can be saved from total destruction only. by blowing up the !houses on a strip of territory inhabited by non-invasive per sons who refuse their, consent to ,such disposition ofthei!) rproperty.. . If .,Mr. Byington ',thinks that' these houses•should. not: be blQwnup, I ask hhn tQ tell us why. If,on the otherJ "hand, he admits that they should be blown up, I ask him if (such action would not be ((injury to non-invaders withou.t.

the resistance of invasion,"-a policy to which he declares~ himself' opposed under' any circumstances. Can he maintain 1 his abstract proposition in face of the concrete illustration? Mareover, the illustration, though not framed originally fo"," this discussion, is a most happy one for the purpose, since here !fit is the innocent act of land-occupancy which constitutes ,the •obstacle to social welfare.. , I hold, then, to my claim. that occupancy. and use as· the title to land is not vitiated by ,th~ fact that it is a rule which, like .allothers,must sometim~ ,;' be trodden underfoot.' Either Mr., Byington has not understood me, or I do not understand him. His answer.,to. me seems tobebase,d '. on an rassumption that my previous answe'rto him was just the op positeofwhat it really was.. He had put tome this 'question: ulfAbuilds ~ 'house, and rents it to B, who thereupon lives or works in it under the lease, will you regard A or B as the coccupie'r and user' of the •land on which that house stands?"

I answered: HI would regard B as the occupant and user ,of the •land on which the house stands, and as the owner of . the house itself." To this Mr. Byington rejoins: ttThen houses will be rented. under your system just as now, and the sum (charged for rent willi,nclude the rental valueo! the land. as ~,well as payment for the use of the house." A most remarkable !conclusion, surely! To my own mind"the logical conclusion is iprecisely the contrary. It is perfectly clear to me that A will J notpuild a.house to rent to B, if he knows that the protective association.will recognize B as the owner of both land and fhouseassoon as he becomes the occupant. ' I. utterly repudi ate the ·idea that unused land, if usable, would remain idle ,11nderanoc~upancy-and-use •regime. How could it, when 2.2.4 I N D I V I DU ALL I B E R T Y anyone would be free to take it and would not be forced t< pay rent for it?

As a result of the misunderstanding, Mr. Byington ha: failed to CC see about the drug-stores." All his present remark: upon them are mal a propos. Under an occupancy-and-us l system all ground-floor druggists-that is, all retail druggist: ~will be owners of both land and store, and competitioI will proceed among them with the effect described by me and my argument that CCcompetition under freedom shows ~ strong tendency to take from the occupants of superior site: their advantage" remains intact. Mr. Byington will have t< try again. First, however, let me answer his puerile ques· tion: CCWhy does not the man who now pays no rent becausl he is on his own land now undersell his rent-paying competi tors." For precisely the same reason that the man who pay no interest because he is using his own capital does not under· sell his interest-paying competitors. Is Mr. Byington reallJ unaware that the man who uses that which he could lend tc another for a price insists on getting as much profit from i (in addition to the reward of his labor and enterprise) as h would get if he sho~ld lend it?

Mr. Byington may understand that the man who build a cage over the sleeper is an invader. The man who block up an improved, claimed, and constantly used highway i also an invader. The man who takes possession of an un occupied, unimproved, unused passage is not an invader, an< does not become one simply becatl-se, afterward, somebod~ else wishes to make a highwa-r of it. Such a man is not tl be dispossessed except in one of those rare emergencies wheJ necessity, which knows no law, compels it. Regarding protection of occupancy, I answer Mr. Bying ton that undoubtedly the protective association would insis on registration of all titles to real estate as a condition 0 protection. Then, in case of dispute between claimants anI a failure of the jury to agree, the protective association woull regard as the occupant the party whose registration of titl it had already accepted. The picket note to which Mr. Byington alludes was criticism upon Miss Katharine J. Musson. The paragraph bein; short, I reproduce it: The statement that a State can have no rights except thos INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 2.2.5 delegated to it by individuals is singular doctrine on the lips of aSingle Taxer. Miss Musson acknowledges the right of the State to collect rent· from every land-occupant, this rent being Jnher eyes the just due of aU individuals, since all have an equal right to the use of every part of the earth. It followS'"

:£romthese two positions that the State, if it collects my share 'of this rent, commits an act of usurpation, for I have not delegated to it the right to collect my rent. And yet I have not heard that Miss Musson or any other Single Taxer would ;Jimit the State, in the exercise of its rentcollecting function, :to the collection of only such. portion of the total· rent as·is properly ·due to the persons who have appointed the State thecir.t~nt-follector. It follow.s ~urther .. that all indfviduals who,hke inyself, have not appoInted the State theIr rentcollector nltay, if they choose, go about~ each individually, from one land-occupant to another,. collecting their respec.....' !tive shares of. the rent due. According to this, I have the J tight to at lonce start on a tour among my neighbors (or even'" among· all Ithe.land-occupying inhabitants of .the earth) and demand ofl each the delivery into my hands of that greater or "smaller fraFtion of a cent which each owes me for the current quarter. <pr, if I find this course Itoo expen;sive,all those who ignore the I State may unite in appointing a private force of >frent-coUec~ors to collect their share of the total rent. Does Miss Mussdn· accept these logical inferences. from her position?

Mr. Byingtoh admits that the State is a usurper if it cotrect; my sh:!re of rent without getting from me a power of attor ney.He cI~ims neither for himself or for any other person or for any association of persons the right to collect my share of rent without authorization from me. Accordingly he expresses a willingness to enter into an arrangement with me tor the collection of our rents; that is, he invites me to give a power of attorney. I must admit that this is very accom-j i·modating on Mr. Byington's part; nevertheless, I churlishlyJ :decline. If any part of the money in the hands of land-users belongs to-me (which is the hypothesis just now), I prefer to; 'leave it where it is. Now, ,Mr. Byington, what are you and'! \your Single-Tax friends going to do about it? I do noti' ;;call upon you to deter~ine. my share; so far as lam coni cerned, it may remain undetermined. But, if you are going tcj collect your share, you will have to determine first what you~ 226 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y share is. At any rate, I bid you take good care not to touch mine. By your own confession you Single Taxers are entitled to collect only such rent as is the rightful share of the Single Taxers, all others refusing to delegate their rights. Do you tell me that such a task is insuperably difficult and intrinsi cally absurd? Very well, I answer; that fact is not my fault; it is simply the misfortune of the Single-Tax theory.

The collection of rent by each individual from all land users on earth, which Mr. Byington accepts so complacently, is an absurdity which Miss Musson cannot stand. So she at tempts to dispute my conclusion. I am not debating with her now regarding the Single-Tax theory. For the nonce I am accepting it; I am supposing that I have a right in certain funds now in the hands of land-users. So never mind the Single-T ax theory. Then she tells me of the dreadful things that would happen if, under' an occupancy-and-use regime, I should refuse to delegate my right. But I am not discussing occupancy and use either. Miss Musson is supposed to know nothing of my opinions on the land question. I present my self to her simply as the individual, Tucker, who declines to delegate his rights, just as I might have presented a hypo thetical individua~, Smith. But, argues Miss Musson, you have no separate right to rent. Very well; we will not dispute about that either. The only thing that concerns me at present is Miss Musson's specific declaration, in the last sentence of her article, that I· have a share in the aggregate right to rent, and that I can delegate this to the State. Here I have all tIiaE""r·":\\T'arrt;~aH,·»tha1:'''iS'''nt!'e"~ssa<rf''to'''tIie·· main purpose of my original criticism. Delegation of rights is an act of pure volition, and, as such, implies the power to refuse such dele gation. Then, i~!",~,aA".delegate<to"the·State my share in the aggregate rigIit to rent, I ,can also 4~~Hl)&< ~o < delegate it.

N'0w;'''''r';ao's()~''~es:!iiie::,:,:But'''Mi's's'-Miis'son has previously and ftiiidament'aIlfdeclared that a State can have no rights except those delegated to it by individuals. Therefore, since I refuse to delegate to the State my share in the aggregate right to rent, the State has no right to take my share in the aggregate right to rent. Q. E.· D. And there is no escape from the demonstration. Miss Musson may as well ((acknowledge the corn" first as last, and make her. choice between individual ism and the Single Tax. The two are incompatible.

INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 2.2.7 lean readily forgive Mr. Byington for mistaking B for A (in my answer to his question. Such a slip the most careful 111an may make at any time. But his more fundamental mis ;conception of what the occupancy-and-use doctrine really i,~isJ find it· more difficult, if not to pardon, at least to account tor. Certainly in no writing of mine have I given him war 1'rant'for supposing me to hold that a man should be allowed 'a title to as much of the earth as he, in the course of his'life, fwith the aid of all the workmen that he can employ, may suc lceed in covering with buildings. It is occupancy and use ~hat Anarchism regards as the basis of land ownership,-not f(Jccupany or use, as •Mr. Byington seems to have understood. A man cannot be allowed, merely by putting labor, to the limit of his capacity and beyond the limito£ his personal use, into material of which there .,is a li1l1itedsupply and the use of which is essential',to the existence of other men" to with-j ,hold that material from other meri's, use; and. any contract based upon or involving such withholding is as lacking in sanctity or legitimacy as a contract to deliver stolen goods.

,As I have never held that freedom of contract includes a ,right to dispose of the property of others, 1 do not, in denying such right, ((yield the sanctity of contract," as Mr. Byington 'puts it. "Yes, the object of AnarcNsm is, sure enough, to let every man Ucontrol self and the results of self-exertion"; [but this by no means implies that a man may store upon another's land the results of his' self-exertion. If a man exerts bimselfby erecting a building on land which afterward, by the operation of the principle of occupancy and use, rightfully. becomes another's, he must, upon' the demand of the subse-I' .quent occupant, remove, from this land the results of his self exertion, or, failing so to do, sacrifice his property right t~ in. The man who persists in' storing his property on another's premises is an invader, and it is his crime that alienates his control of this property. He is tenned one house," not «(for ',building a house and then letting another man'live in it,"

iput for invading the premises of another. If there were noth ingin •the ((Beauties of Government" to heat that, then in i.deedwould government be a really beautiful thing. ';' The objection advanced by Mr. Byington that adherence to· this principle must cause a degree of embarrassment, to persons de-sirousof usinga~entire edifice for a period too 2.2.8 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y short to warrant building or buying has some validity, and should be accorded all the weight that properly belongs to it, But its gravity is insufficient to balance that of consideration~ in the other scale. It must be remembered that comparativel) few persons desire to rent an entire building for a short time As a rule, those who want quarters for a short time prefeJ parts of buildings, and there is nothing in the occupancy· and-use plan to prevent them from realizing their desire. A: a rule, again, those who want an entire building want it fOl a long time, and therefore can afford to build or buy. Thl exceptional person who does not come under these heads wi!

undoubtedly have to pay something for the realization of hi exceptional desires. He will have to make it worth the whill of the occupying owner of the desired building to part wid it; that is to say, he will have to buy the building at some, thing above its normal value. Perhaps, to avoid the embar rassment of looking for a purchaser at the expiration of th time for which he desires the building, he will be able tl effect a contract with the seller whereby the latter shall agre to buy back the building at a given date at its normal valu(; If the seller should fail to keep this agreement, the buildin; would still be the property of the buyer, and he couldsel it to another party. The difference between the buying an the selling price might not exceed the rent exacted for sue: buildings under the present reginte. But, assuming that thes e~ceptional persons would be, for occasional brief period: under a greater burden in this respect than at pr~sent, th could not offset the far m.ore important fact that the gre:l body of people would be occupying 'their own building paying no rent for their use and no interest on the mone with which they were built. The entire race's steady an imperative need of free access to the land cannot be .'iubord nated to· the occasional convenience of a small fraction of tl race.

The adjustment of the conditions upon which an occupar and user can secure his premises against being considered : abandoned while he is on a vacation or a visit, or of the COl ditions upon which an occupying owner who desires to s(; may hold his property while· seeking a purchaser, or of tl conditions upon which a man who builds houses, not to ren but to sell, may likewise be accommodated in his search fl INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 229 purchasers, is a mere matter of human device or administra ;tive .detail, not to be. discussed in these columns unless the attempt be .to show that such device is impossible. Probably my language regarding ground-floor occupants [was not sufficiently clear. In my assertion that they 'would :own both land and store the intended emphasis was on the twords .here italicized, and I neglected to consider the fact ;tpat .notall occupying owners would, on erecting a building, i,prefer.to occupy the ground floor themselves~ my view being ,colored by the knowledge that retail druggists, apropos of 'whom my point was made, so far as I have observed, do busi inesson the ground floor.. It was not in my mind at all to deny that a. registered occupying owner would lose.his claim to pro f t~ction of his title should he .choose to personally occupy only the. attic of his building. It would be required only that he should occupy and use some portion or portions practically \equal .• to the ground floor in .area. It is probable that in an occup~ncy-and-use system there would be many cases of rent paying by tenants of rooms or floors. B.utthe amount of this tent' .would .be greatly influenced by the competition that would prevail in consequence. of the freeing of unused land, landtlte ability to build with non-interest-bearing capital that :free money would insure, as well as by the non-intervention of the protective association in the relations of owner and ten ant. I question whether, under such circumstances, the rent 'that could be obtained would often much exceed the loss fthrough wear and tear and care of the premises rented.

, In his present remarks. abou~ price-cutting and its relation ,to rent Mr. Byington leaves entirely out of the account the ,element' of competition on which my argument rests. Does 'he suppose that there is any sharply competitive trade in ex (istence in which the tradesman does not constantly ask him i'self ,the' question how he can manage to lower his prices in Yorderto secure some of the patronage that is going to his fompetitors? And does he suppose that, in (considering this 1problem, .this tradesman fails to ask himself if he cannot re duce his expenses and thereby' manage to lower his 'prices? !,A.nd is not tent one of these expenses? And, if it were lifted :£rornhisshoulders, would he not lower his prices at once? ,,And, if he did, would not his.competitor, who has all the time [been. doing business in a building of his own and paying rent 2.30 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY to nobody, be forced to lower his prices also in order to retain his, trade,-a thing which now he does not have to do because his rent-paying competitor cannot lower his prices? It is as clear as daylight.

The man who builds a cage over a sleeper prevents the sleeper from exercising his unquestionable right to step off of premises that belong to another, and therefore is an invader. The man who becomes by occupancy and use the owner of a previously unoccupied, unimproved, and unused passage, and in the exercise of his ownership blocks the passage, simply prevents other men from doing what they have no right to do, -that is, step on to premises that belong to another,-and therefore is not an invader. Mr. Byington's answer to my contention that there may be circumstances under which it is advisable to do violence to equal freedom amounts in its conclusion to a statement that no evil can be as disastrous as an act of invasion; that justice should be done though the heavens fall, for a precedent of injustice would lead t'o a worse disaster than the falling of the heavens; and that, if he were the guardian of a city most of whose inhabital\ts found themselves under the necessity of a choice between death by :fire on the one hand and death by drowning on the other, he would not relieve them from thi~ choice if he could do so only by violating the property right~ of a portion of his fellow-citizens. Discussion is hopeless here.

In May, 1895, Mr. Louis F. Post delivered a lecture at Cincinnati on the Single Tax, in which he made the statement that occupancy and use was really the only true title to land. After the lecture, in reply to a ques tion from one of his auditors, he explained that his advo cacy of the Single Tax was as the best method of reach ing the occupancy-and-use title. When Mr. Tucker's attention was called to Mr. Post's statement, he hailed it as very significant, since the other prominent champions of the Single Tax denied that the land belongs to the occupant and user and affirmed 'that all land belongs ",equally to all the people; and he stated that, if Mr. Post INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 231 had not been misunderstood, the latter had taken a posi tion which involved the rejection of the Single-Tax the ory and··pledged him to the Single Tax only as'a measure of expediency and as :l stepping-stone.Mr . Post replied that he did. not mean to imply that he advocated the Single Tax asa stepping-stone in the. sense of a temporary expedient, but as the. only way of obtaining and main tain~ng thet~tle of occup~ncy ~nd. us~.Th1t exp11111 tion .•... called forth the following from the editor of Liberty: MR. POST admits the utterances attributed to him, and then proceeds to· emasculate them. It appears .that .the phrase occupancy.and use is used oy Mr. Post simply· as an equiva leritof thel'ight ofpossefsiol). In that case it is nonsense to talk about the Single Ta~,orany. other. measure as the best method of reaching the· pccupancy-and-use •title, for· in Mr.

Post's sense that title already exists.....Today the occupant of land is its possessor,.in right and in fact. .• The aim of the occupancy-and-use' agitation is not to secure for the occupant a possession which is already his, but an ownership and eon trol which in most cases isno~ his, but his landlord's,-an 'ownership and control ¥which'shall end when occupancy and use end, but which shall be absolute while occupancy and use continue. In another part of his letter Mr. Post virtually denies the equivalence of occupancy with possession by declaring that landlords, even those who rent land. and· buildings in their entirety, are occupants and users. If this be true, then the Astor estate is occupying and using a very large portion of thecityof'New York. But·to assert that the Astors are either occupants or possessors is' an utter misuse of language. Besides, if the Astors. are occupants and users, and if the Single Tax will virtually compel the Astors to relinquish their lands, then the Single Tax, instead of being a means of getting to an occupancy-and ...use tenure, will be. a means of destroying such tenure •.. Mr. Post's position bristles at every point with incan sist~ncy and absurdity.

232 INDIVIDUAL tIBERTY It is so long since I read Mr. George's book that I do not remember whether Mr. Post is right in denying that Mr. George teaches the doctrine of equal ownership of land by all the people. One thing, however, is certain,-that the equal right of all people to every piece of land is asserted by many of the foremost Single Taxers, some of whom are on the na tional executive committee of the party. And it is on the strength of this that the Single Tax is defended. How often we hear Single Taxers deploring the name by which their idea is kno,wn! CClt is very unfortunate," they will tell you, CCthat our plan is called a tax. It is not a tax at all. We be lieve in the utter abolition of taxation. Taxation is robbery, a. taking from the producer of his product. .We do not pro pose to rob; in collecting rent we take only what is ours, for that which comes, not from labor, but from land, belongs, not to tile laborer, but to us, the people." If occupancy and use is not a title to land; then this position is sound; on the other hand, if it is a title to land, then the Single Tax is rob bery. Mr. Post cannOt escape from this dilemma.

If there must be Single Taxers, I prefer those of the Phila delphia sort, who attack occupancy and use' with hammer and tongs, maintaining that it is·unscientific and diametrically opposite to their fundamental principles. Relieve me, pray, of oppol}ents like Mr. Post, who, using my own phraseology in a· distorted sense, strive to make it appear to the people that their ideas, are mine. Let Anarchists be on their guard. Don't bite at phrases. In considering the letters of Mr. Alexander Horr, I notice at the outset that they betray·a 'singular contradiction. In the first we are told that the occupancy-and-use theory of land tenure Cthas not risen to the dignity of respectable em piricism." In the second we are told that of the four systems of land tenure now' advocated there are two which ccdeserve the most careful consideration," and that one of the two is the occupancy-and-use theory. The question arises: why does that which has not risen to the dignity of respectable em piricism deserve to be considered with care?

Mr. Horr complains of the indefiniteness with which the advocates of theoccupancy-and-use theory explain it. My opinion is·that the larger share of the indefiniteness regarding it that exists in his own mind is due to a failure on his part INDIVIDUAL LIBER'r'Y 2.)3 to, weigh and understanp what .has been said in defense of the theory. In a recent conversation with me, Mr. Horr naively assum~d the ownership by an Astor of the whole of Manhattan Island, and the renting 'of the same in parcels to tenants, as a possibility quite consistent with the occupancy-and-use theory and· one which the theory's advocates would so regard. Such an assumptiQn on his part showed beyond question· that he has failed to consider the positions that have beeh taken in Liberty as to the nature of occup~ncy ~nd use. Thes~ positiotlg h1ve been stated· in English plain ~nough to be definitely grasped. If. Mr. Horr had taken pains to understand them, he could not int~rpret the occupancy-and-use theory ina manner squarely contradictory of them. There will be no motive for Liberty. to attempt a completer exposition of its doctripe for Mr. Hort's benefit, until he understands the perfectly definite things that 'Liberty has .already said. . .' , Agreeing to my claiin that equal freedom is not a law, biiJt si1llply a lime of social.lifew~i~h. w.e fin~ it exped.ient •• to fol".

low" Mr. Horr asks me why, If It l~expedlen:t to enforce equal freedom in other things, it is not also expedient to enforce equal rights to· the· use of the earth. As appropriately might I ask him why, it is not expedient to enforce equal rights to" the use of brain power. Equal freedom as defined and advo cated in Liberty covers only the control of self and the results of, self-exertion. t~Equalrights in other things" is a phrase ~ of Mr. Horr's coinage.. I llphold equal freedom, as I define it. because it ~ec~res. individ~ality, the definition and encourage~ m.e.n.t .Of w...h,i~h, are .. e.ssential.'.toSo... cial dev.e.lopment and. ,prospe..r~ity and to individual happiness. I oppose Mr. Horr's policyl loosely described as (tequal rights in other things" because it tends to obliterate individuality. The enforcement of equa rights to the use of the earth, for· instance, by a single ta~ on •land values means a confiscation of a. portion of the. indi- , vidual's ·prqduct, a denial of the liberty to control thee result$ ofself-exertion, and hence a trampling upon individuality. If· an equal distribution or common ownership of wealth, witH the accompanying destruction of individuality, is a good : thing,.then let us become·Communists at once, and confiscate every excess, whether its source be land value, brain value', or some .other v.alue. If, on the other 'hand, the protection of the· individual is the thing. paramount and the main essential of .happiness, then let us defend theequal.liberty of individuals 234 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY to control self and the results of self-exertion, and let other equalities take care of themselves.

An instance of the peculiar manner in which Mr. Horr interprets his opponent's utterances may be seen in his com ments on Mr. Yarros's statement that, while voluntary taxa tion of economic rent might not be a good thing, cCthe use of force to bring it about would be extremely unwise." Mr. Horr thinks that this statement is ((not quite clear." It is true that it is not quite exact. Mr. Yarros had better have said ((the use of force to effect it," or, more simply still, Ctthe ,enforcement of it," than CCthe use of force to bring it about." But even from the sentence as it stands it seems to me that no intelligent reader should have failed to extract the evident meaning that, though men might well agree to pay rent into a common treasury, no man should be forced to do so. Yet Mr. Horr takes it to mean that force should not be used to collect rent in special and abnormal cases. I do not see the slightest warrant for this extraordinary and senseless construc tion of Mr. Yarros' swords.

/'".Mr. Horr defends State collection of rent on the ground l~l1at, if equal rights to land be admitted, (Call men have a l ~ight to collect rent from those who use better than free land, ~ 'ecause each in~vidual. would collect such rent ~mself, if he . d the power. LogIC does not warrant the Inference. I s owed clearly, in my discussion with Miss Musson, that, even granting Single-Tax ethics, still State collection of every indiidual's share of rent, without delegation by each individual of his right to collect, cannot be advocated consistently by any individualist. The fact that an individual would collect t e rent rightfully due him, if he had the power, does not warrant another man, or all other men, in proceeding un~ uthorized to collect this rent. There are some creditors who elieve that the State should not collect debts. Would Mr. ,o'Horr claim that the State is entitled to collect the debts due t""hese credi,tors, regardless of their wishes in the ma,tter? Now rent is nothing but a debt, under Single-Tax ethics. Conse quently any parties who contract for the collection of their , rents in common must see to it that they collect only their own shares of the total rent due. If they collect other people's shares, even the Single Taxer, if he be an individualist, is bound to consider them thieves.

I ND I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y 235 All that Mr. Horr has to say about the difficulty of sustain.. ingan occupancy-and-tlse system by jury decisions is based on silly and gratuitous assumptions. In ·the:6.rst place, it is pure .assumption to say that juries will he recruited solely from tax payers. No believer in the original formaf jury trial as ex plained by Spooner ever advanced such a proposition. In. the second place, it is pure assumption to say that,· when taxation is voluntary, only land-owners will pay taxes, because ,they alonebeneht by the expend~ture of th~ taxes. If is nottru~ that.they alone benefit. Every individual .benefits whose life, liberty, and· property is protected. In the third place, it is pure assumption to say that juror~ do not, in the main, render verdicts in accordance with their own .col1ceptions of equity and. social Jiving. A jury of thieves is quite as likely asa jury of honest men to convict a prisoner justly accused of theft. Now, no advocate ofoccupancy ..and-use tenure of land believes that. it can be put in force, until as a theory· it has been as generally, or almost as generally, seen and accepted as is the prevailing theory of ordinary privateprpperty. But, when the theory has.heen thus accepted, jurors may be relied on, .• in the" main, to render verdicts inaG£Qrdance therewith, no matter what their status or situation in life. Were it not ,so, no society would be possible.

Mr. Horr :6.nallydefends the Single Tax, against theobjec tion that under. it the .1a.nd occupant. "is at! the mercy of the community, by.claiming l that l;l;changesdue to social. growth which are·just as.inevitable as any other phenomena of nature must be submitted·to." I suppose, then, that, because I must submit to the tornado that destroys my crop, I must also sub mit: to the·.depredations·of· people who choose to settle in my vicinity and then rob me of a part of my crop by what they call a tax on my land value. Well, of course I must, if my fellow-citizens all.turn· thieves,-that ·is, Single Taxers. Con sequently I .amtrying to persuade them to be honest. GEORGE AND THE SINGLE TAX Following are some fragmentary paragraphs relating to .different .phases of· .the. Single Tax: and ·to Henry 2.36 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY George's perplexities concerning his economic theories. The editor of Liberty· took great delight in pointing out his inconsistencies: SOME of Henry George's correspondents have been pestering him a good deal with embarrassing questions as to what. will become, under his system, of the home of a man who has built a house upon a bit of land which afterwards so rises in value that he cannot afford to pay the taxes on it. Unable to deny that such a man would be as summarily evicted by the government landlord as is the Irish farmer in arrears by the individual landlord, and yet afraid to squarely admit it, Mr.

George has twisted and turned and doubled and dodged, at temptirtg to shield himself by all sorts .of irrelevant considera tions, until at last he is reduced to asking in rejoinder if this argument has not U a great deal of the flavor of the Georgia deacon's denunciation of abolitionists because they wanted to deprive the widow Smith of her solitary Cnigger,' her only means of support." That is, Mr. George virtually asserts that the claim to own a human beihg is no more indefensible than the claim of the laborer to own the house he has built and to the unincumbered and indefinitt; use of whatever site he may have selected for it without dispossessing another. The editor of the Standard must have been reduced to sore, straits when he resorted to this argument. With all his shufiling he has not yet escaped, and never· can escape, the fact· that, if govern ment were to confiscate land values, any man would be liable to be turned out of doors, perhaps with compensa,tion, perhaps without it, and thus deprived, maybe, of his dearest joy and subjected to irreparable loss, just because other men had set tled in his vicinity or decided to run a railroad within two minutes' walk of his door. This in itself is enough to damn Mr. George's project. That boasted craft, Land Nationaliza tion, is floundering among the rocks, and the rock of individ ual liberty and the inalienable homestead has just made an enormous hole in its unseaworthy bottom which will admit all the water necessary to sink it.

Henry George's correspondents continue to press him re garding the fate of the man whose home should so rise in IND IVID U AL LIBERTY 237 value through increase of population that he would be taxed out of it. At first, it will be remembered, Mr. George coolly sneered at the objectors to this species'of eviction as near rel ativesof those who objected to the abolition of slavery on the ground that it would tCdeprive'the widow Smith of her only (nigger.'" Liberty made some comments on this, which ,Mr. George never noticed. Since their appearance, however, his analogy between prope,rty in ((niggers" and a man's property in his house has lapsed,. as President Cleveland would say, int:o a .condition. of. tCinnocuous desuetude," and a new method of ~~ttling. this difficulty has been evolved. A, corresponden.t"\ lihaving .supposed the case.of a man whose neighborhood ShOUI~' c. ".'.',:",.I,/bec.omea b..,usinesscentre, and Whose. pl.a.c.e o.fre~ide!,ce.,_.. the.r.<e.....'.•..Ufore, as f~r as,the land was concerned, should rIse In value so ;i that he could not afford or might not desire to pay the ta i I.$.',\~.~.·.·~,:,k.;.~:~.~:~f.~.:i.~:b.s~r?:~~e~:~.t:.E,;:;~r;~I§~i< l.·. ensate him for b,eing obliged to.• sell his hou.se at a sacrifice.

" hat this method has some advantages over the ~tnigger" ar gument I am not prepared to deny, but I am tempted to a.sk Mr. George whether this is one of the ways by which he pro~ poses to ttsimplify government." Henry George, in the Standard, calls Dr. Cogswell of San: Francisco, who has endowed a polytechnic .college in that city, and for its maintenance has conveyed certain ,lands to trustees, a Ctphilanthropist by proxy," on the ground that the people who pay rent for these lands are really taxed by Dr. Cogswell for the support of .the college. But what are Henry George himself, by his theory, and his ideal State, by its practice, after realization, but ((philanthropists by proxy"? What else, in fact, is\ tlie,State as it now exists? (Oftener a cahnibal' than a philanthropist, to be sure, but in eithercas~by proxy.) Does not Mr. George propose that the State shall tax individuals to secure ((public improvements~' which they may not cOtlsider such,or which they m~y consider less desirable to the111 than private improvemeP-ts? · Does he not propose that individuals shall. ttlabor 'gratis" for the State, ((whether they like it. or not"? 'Does he not maintain that what the State Ctdoes with 2.38 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY their labor is simply none of 1:heir business"? Mr. George's criticism of Dr. Cogswell is equally a criticism of every form of compulsory taxation, especially the taxation of land values.

He has aptly and accurately described himself. There must be a limitation to great fortunes, says Henry George, «but that limitation must be natural, not artificial. Such a limitation is offered by the land value tax." What in the name of sense is there about a tax that makes it natural as distinguished from artificial? If anything in the world is purely artificial, taxes are. And if they are collected by force, they are not only artificial, but arbitrary and, tyrannical. Henry George answers a correspondent who asks if under the system of taxing land values an enemy could not compel him to pay a higher tax on his land simply by making him ""an offer for the land in excess of the existing basis of taxation, ~lby saying that no offers will chang<:th~"~?:~!~,,,Qf,!~~~!i()l},l1n.. ",.les~ they are made in good faidf'arid for other than sentimental moti ves.lt'seerrrS';'"tben;'''fffaf'''tne'tax'''ass'essors''' are to be in..

quisitorsas'\\T~lr;.'a~~~'~"~i~h,"I??W'er~?,~l.l1Jject ""men to ex.. l ~mi~atiorlo! ,~~ei: 1~10~ive,~:~o~'::a~si~,i~q't,~'e~ect any given/ "jtra#i~ci~on,"in" ra,~~::,~,:,'~',:Whit:"ilQ,rIQ,H~~~3!~i~",:',~h?se will be fot Ctboodlers"''!'''''Wli'at,gQldeA,QPcE9r~urti~ies,tor',traud, favoritisqIt ;~~~~~~ffn*so1i>~f~~liie.tJt~~o~tf~r:.~~?!.g!:~:~1 have r t Io.~, The idiocy'~'t"'th~w'Ai~rg~m~;;t~';~pI~'y~ft~'~t~dai1y press ~ discussing the .labor question cannot well be exaggerated, b~ nevertheless it sometimes makes a' point on Henry George ,which that gentleman cannot meet. For instance, the New ; York W<?!:l.~, ..lCl,1;~h,-, J?,2~?t~?~t,lt that, ~ne~~~,eq. increment at taches not only ~~J~"~~"J?Y,t.);Q,:aiUlOst::ev,er~"px.ad1.lGt"of labor. ccNewsp'ap'ers;"""it'said, (Care made valuable properties by the .,j,ncrease of population." Mr. George seems to think this'''ri,: , diculous, and inquires confidently whether the World's suc~ cess is due to increase of population or to Pulitzer's busines~ management. As if one cause excluded the other! Does Mrl Ge()rge '0' ~~,l~ev~,.~~en, t~~~,~l.llit~e~'S busin~~s management could have secured"iC'fuiIIion'readei's'of't1ie'~World if there ha_ been no people in New York? Of course'not~'",,,~hen,, to' folf.

low his own logic, Mr. George ought to discriminate in th\s case, as in the case of land, between the owner's improvemen~ ) IN D IV IDU ALL IBE RTY 2.39 and the community's improvetnents,and tax the latter out of the owner's hands. ,H~nryGeorge was recently 'reminded in these columns that his own logic would compel him to lay a tax not only on land values, .' but on all values growing out of increase of popula tion, and, newspaper' properties were cited in illustration. A correspondent of the Standard has made the, same criticism, instancing, instead of a,newspaper, uCrusoe'sboat, which rose ~n. value when a sh~p appeared on the hot~zon}' , T() thi.s cor respondent Mr. George makes answer that, while Crusoe'~ boat might have acquired a value when other people came, ubecausevalue isa factor of trading, and, when there is no one to trade with, there can be no value," ,yet Hit by no means folrows that ,growth of, population increases the value of labor products; for a population of fifty' will give as ,much value to a desirable product. asapopulatiotl of a Il1illion." I am ready to admit' thiso£., any article which can ,be readily produced by any and all who choose to. produce it. "But,. as Mr. George says, it is not true of land; and it is asetnphati ...

cally not true of everyatticle in great demand which "can. beproduced,.in a:ppro~imately equal quality ,and with, approxi ... mately .equal.expense, by only one .or a few persons. There are many such articles, and one of them isa popular news.. tpaper. Such articles are of small value, where there are few lpeople and of immense value where there are many. Thisextti"' iivalue is unearned ,increm~J:lt,~ndought tobe~ 'tiied"ottt'''of ltheindi"V"i~tl~ts~~114~ ,~l1~()tllo~e 'l)tt~~~~~~liIltt:llity"n:,'anyun learned, increiiient'oUS7litt,q;~Jje;,~~..vGeorge,be honest!: t~•• ".~~i~<s"'s;'e':;'~T't'~f""~'~'''>'''Ydoctrinewil1lead us"•."J:t~." P" ",_""",h" Ii. r "~J.lr"~""H'N',"<'>T,,..,n" "'<"""""'W'-'~""'""Cart"and. horse are all one to Henry George. He puts .either 'first to suit, his ,fancy or the turn his questioner mar t~ke, ,and no matter which he, places in the'. lead, he ((gets, there •all the. same"-on paper. When he is·.asked how taxa tion ,0£ land. values will abolish poverty, he answers, that the rush of' wage-laborers to the land wilL reduce the supply of labor, and send wages up. Then, when somebody else ,asks him how wage-laborers will be able to rush to the land with ()utmoney ,to take. them •there and capital,to work· the land afterwards, he answers that wages will then be so high that the laborers wilL soon be able to save up ,mottey enough to start 240 INDIVIDUAL LIBER TY with. Sometimes, indeed, as if dimly perceiving the presence of some inconsistency lurking between these two propositions, he volunteers an additional suggestion that, after the lapse of a generation, he will be a phenomenally unfortunate young man who shall have no relatives or friends to help him start upon the land. But we are left as much in the dark as ever about the method by which these relatives or friends, during the generation which must elapse before the young men get to the land, are to save up anything to give these young men a start, in the absence of that increase of wages which can only come as a consequence of the young men having gone to the land. Mr. George, however, has still· another resource in re serve, and, when forced to it, he trots it out,-namely, that, there being all grades between the rich and the very poor, those having enough to start themselves upon the land would do so, and the abjectly poor, no longer having them for com petitors, would get higher wages. Of course one might ask why these diminutive capitalists, who even now can go to the land if they choose, since there is plenty to be had for but little more than the asking, refrain nevertheless from at once relieving an over-stocked .labor market; but it would do no good. You see, youcaa't stump. Henry George. He always comes up blandly smiling. He knows he has a ready tongue and a facile pen, and on these he relies to carry him safely through the mazes of unreasQn.

Henry George thinks the New York Sun's claim, that it is ~.t~£or liberty first, last and forever," pretty cool from a paper that supports a protective tariff. So it is. But the frigidity of this claim is even greater when it comes from a man who proposes on occasion to tax a man out of his home, and to ,ccsimplify" government by making it the owner of all rail roads, telegraphs, gas-works, and water-works, so enlarging its revenues that all sorts of undreamed-of public improvements will become possible, and unnumbered public officials·to ad minister them necessary. ~erhaps no feature .. of Henry George's sche.me' is so often paraded before the public as a bait as the claim. that with a tax levied on land values all other taxes will be abolished. But now it is stated in the Standard that, if any great fortunes remain after the adoption of the land tax, it will be CC a mere detail to terminate them by a probate tax." This is offered INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY for the .benefit of those who believe that .interest no less than r~ntca.usesconcentration of wealth. To those who fear the effects upon home industry in case of an abolition of the tariff Mr. George hints that he will be perfectly agreeable to the of fering. ,of.bounties to home' industries.. to be sure, he would pay the'bouhties out of the land, tax; but the use of the pro...

ceeds of the land tax for a new purpose, after existing govern mental expenses had, been met, would be equivalent: {ito a new :tax •• ,S~we.' already have· three taxes in sight where there was to. be >but one~-the land tax~ the probatetax~ and the bounty taJ(:.'.·Presently, as new necessities arise, a fourthwillloQm up~ and.a fifth, .and a sixth. Thus ,the grand work of tesimplifying government" goesQn. The Single Taxer starts with the proposition thatC:C:ea~hin c:1ividualhas ajust claiIP.to the use of every part of the earth,'~" a.nd,.thus statting, he arrives at this conclusion: cCWhen land lias no value,-that is, when only one man wants to use it,-- We would exact no tax, but,when it acquires a value, our krillciple that each has an equal right to the earthdetnands I Jthat. its rental value should be paid intol:he public treasury."J UIhese two propositi~ns are 'made i~ .so many words bYMJ,;J"'~ .A;~ .. fl. Stephenson, t=an whom the SIngle Taxhas.no.~~lerad-t .vocite;"·not"'eX'C'eflti··"ljo·"M~lItIY·G~(ft'ge'··h:iMselt~'·,·"'ltncr'vet"'triith l , . 1"'. b . . ...",.l.;""",""",, _",,,,,. ~ reqttires'''ttre''"~~Serfio !~'>~"tfratt"a"'more~'aosura"rt~~':!~q~~t~!_!Ji~ I thi'S"wtf'iS"'i1ot'"'IroS"stbl'd"'forttr~ltttm1trt"minct"fo"conceive. I t has ' tl1e"'foriii·'·or.··'re'asohi~g~'>t'trt·;'~Insteaa"·ot'"rea;onlrtg:''tltis~llar and absolute contradiction. It is exactly paralleled in its essen-....

~ial by such an arg\1me,nt as the following:uThis watch beIlongs to, you; therefore it shoul1d be put . into my pocket." 'How does this differ, so far as logic and equity are concerned, from'the Single-Tax argument: uTo the. use of this corner lot you have a just claim; therefore the rental value of this lot should be put into the. public treasury'''? . ";-.,' ~If I··have a just ·clai11l to the use of every piece of .land on~ the globe, then of cour~e I have a just claim to the use of any l'articular piece of land. If I have this latter claim, I, and I falone, have the right to sell this claim. Whoever sells my Iclaim without my•consent is ,a robber.. Since every Single ' .T.••.•axe.r f.av.orsSltch.saleof my c.laim, wheth<jc I consent or not" 'every Single Taxer' is an advocate of robbery. I 242. IN D I V I D UALL I BE R T Y ~A.~ain: since I have' the sole right to sell my claim, I have the sole right to decide at what price it shall be offered in the market. Whoever sells it, even with my consent, is a robber, unless he exacts as great a price as that fixed by me. Since the Single Taxer proposes to sell it without even asking what I am willing to take for it, the Single Taxer is an advocate of robbe~", ~~my'just claim to a particular piece of land is sold, th'"

~.proceeds of the sale must go i.nto my pocket. 1£, after puttin . them in my pocket, I then see fit to take them out again an turn them over to the public treasury in exchange for polic • or other services that I may desire, well and good. But thisl must be entirely optional with me. I may keep these proceeds,j if I choose; I may spend th~m,iflJ;hQQse;c,and"in"the, lattert .sa~~,."t.ma.y,:_choose"hQ\Y",l.~.!!'L,~~£n~;l,,,,them..",,,,"A11¥wonewho at1 tem£~~"~~,,,"~:t!k~~itllte,,"his""GhQiGe<,c{'OfI""mille-"·in··mtnis"'matter is ~ robber. Anyone who lays violent hands ont.h~"pxQceeds ofl this'"sale"anil"ae'posits"iliefii'i'fi'tti(p'1J:QJic',ilea~ury, ,without myt 'consenf'is"''a'''fot515'ef:''''Nearl'''ever Sin Ie Taxer ro oses to~ ~."'.'.n.·.i~~~~~:~.•.:.,;.·~... :.:=:.~.er."e.Y._,f.,,Q,r.•,i..ri~~!Iy.~,i~~I:$,i~Je .. tax.e;,i...s...:l. .,---...............y ..,....',""~,~.",",...,~""'.~.'.."""'_..''',,''','" .F Ji"''''"]Juteven If'i'w-ere"ter'aH'ow'thi't'It would not be robbery. to\ {deposit in the United States treasury without my consent the' proceeds of the sale of my just claim to a particular pie'ce of land (on theg!:Q!!!!£!1li~1",I,.g..e.k,,,an ..,:eq:Uii]1enr·"''iiiq·'''theuse o£ stree~~,~!.£,;1;t,."~t,,,,1Y9}!rdstil1.~e. r()~b~ry,~o deposit such pro"::.

ceeds··~iii,~fh'~"i!!~~~~!.y:,:~r::Qr~j:(:~I.itii~ii:,Qi,",'.EtaAce or Russia or ", ~f~J~:~h?il.~b~;}E~i:~~!t£rJ~I~#;~~i~e~~:;~f:~; . particular piece of land In Peru. It this' claim is sold, who ever lays·;:han'd§;:l)tt,;..rhe:~:pmceedS'''''aTJ.d~~it§:,:.!h~<~, in ,the Pe ruvian treas~ry: .~~. a,.,ro.bber,.,B.ut ,Jlearly.,ey~r,y:",§irigle Taxer;; says~~~t.',~~~~~· a.~.~~urse as t?is "~~,~h~,,.~,~"2:~~o!!.g,~,~d,,'.~·ii9~~~ AMrly"ey~~Y.S:uigte,:,:·,T~!~~·'.~s·"a:~·actY?£~}.e.., aI,robbery ... ",., ,. Bear''iii'mind that I cLiinl<noright' to any part of the earth. But a right to every part of it isass~:t'ferl"·for<m"e·'bY'tli(;rSingle ' Taxers. The objection that I am now urging is to their use of their own assertion that a certain thing is mine as afounda tion for stealing it from me. Their doctrine may be summed up in three words: Property justifies robbery. Proudhon's i7.,'!!'adoxis eclipsed.

INDIVIDUAL LIBERT:Yj '243' Mr. Bolton Hall·. has expressed.the opinion that. lam in, creasingly worried as to the Single Tax •...Well, .Mr. Hall, you ~reright. •I' am ·worried as to ~he Single TaX,-not .((increas ingly," .but worried to the extent that' I have· been ever since ~CProgress and. Poverty" made its appearance. Whenever an intelligent man announces· a purpose"to tyrannize by force over peaceable folk, it worries me. And it especially worries me' when a dishonest man .like •He.nry George' uses the pull, of hypocr;tical .p~ety, . and •an honestm~nllk~. G. It St~ph~n.~ uses the pull of high moral appeal, to induce others to join them in ··their criminal effort to forcibly take from men the products of their labor. Every(form of authority worries ~ 'every attempt at authority worries me. State. Socialismwor'ri~me,Prohibition worries me,Comstockism .worries me, thej ;,.cpstom ~ouses w?rry' me, the ban~ng monopoly .worries me,1 \lfndlordlsm' worries .me,·and the Single Tax worries me.. Doi t~:usuppose fora moment, Mr.H.all~that, if thesethingsdidJ ,mot. worry me, I should be publIshing Liberty? Why,my good .•·sit, I am ·bending·•.·allmy .energie~ to •• the thwarting of you and .all •• others who. propose, .from whatever sincere.and generous motives, to ertforce their will upon non-invasive peo:'", pIe.....•. You worry me; indeed you do•. ·1 .wish .most heartily ~hatyouwould let me and other pe~ceable peoJ:lle alone, aban don your menacing attitudetowa~d our. property, and quit worrr~ng us, so that we might gOlabout our busfness.. ~ """"""So',much' tor th~.charge.of worry, •• which Mr. l-Iall.used as' ~J1introduction toacomplaint against me for printing,and '¥gainstMr. Yarros for 'writing, an article containing the £01 ,towing passages: cCWhereverit is profitable to improve land, 'it is generally improved without the compulsion of.,the Single Tax"; 'UHow would the Single Tax help 'labor in. England, Scotland, Ireland, Germany, Italy, and France? .There isn@ J.~nd speculation/in those countries worth mentioning." With Mr. Hall's obj~ctions to these passagesI do not propose to deal elaborately; perhaps Mr. Yarros will do so later. But, in vindication of myself,. I may say that to point •out vacant lots does not bverthrow Mr.• Yarros's statement that generally thatland is improved whichit is profitable to improve, and that. to point to. instances of .land speculation in Europea.n cou~tries •• does not 'overthrow 'Mr. Yarros's other statement that land speculation in .Europe is so much less frequent than· 244 INDIVIDU AL LIBER TY in newer countries that it is not worth mentioning. The comf,,:,I'~ parative and qualified statements of Mr. Yarros are construed ..:j t... by Mr. Hall into positive and sweeping ones, and thencriti..If -:\Ij cized as such. Mr. Yarros's claims amount simply to this, :. \.iJ~. that land speculation is an overrated evil even in this country, / "" "I and that in older countries, where the land question is much ;,./. "r'" more serious than here, speculation in land is so small an ele-\\.- ~ :~, .ment in the problem that it may 'be'~ negtectea~'''''Mr~ Hall's ~f\ .t>J! ,····" .•'surprisemar··I""shtJuld·' pfint'sucli"'st~n:emehts is paralleled by !i~ ~:"."::!~'.. ' my surprise at his hasty and careless reading of them.

~~,.".,.f~.).",.:~. It appears further from Mr. Hall's letter that the Single ~JJ'\Taxers prop~se firs~ to capture D~laware, and then to capture .i . r the AnarchIsts. Like the theatncal manager who prefers to I ,/Ii j test his new play in a country town before making a venture ..~. "t~)/ in the city, the Single Taxers will begin by CCtrying it on a v( ...b dog." If they succeed with the dog, then they will accept ~~..I1 .~,pur challenge. Our chances for a fight would be very bad, C""Y,., were it not that the dog, instead of giving bark for bark, I .1 .. J~\ ~.,...fj, is snapping at .,the Single Taxers' heels. If Delaware con tin.ues I' IJ to send Single Taxers to the lock-up, there is a bare chance "ll; 'that Delaware will be captured through its own stupidity, and " then the Anarchists' innings will begin. In view of Mr. Hall's honest admission that the Single Taxers are less intelligent than the Anarchists, the promised attempt ot the less to swallow the greater is indicative of more valor than discretion.

It is one thing for the less to worry the greater; it is quite an other to swallow it. METHODS REFUSAL TO PAY RENT In the matter of freeing the land, no less than in the other aspects of liberty, has there been a constant clamor for an explanation of the means to be adopted to secure the ends aimed at. It is notorious that, at one time, the Irish Land League had the landlords whipped if the League had had but sense and courage enough to follow INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 245 up its advantage. It was not difficult, therefore, for the editoro£ Liberty to find· conspi~uous instances of an. ef fe~tive method of securing results, as he here pointed out: IRELAND'S chief danger: the liability of her people-besotted with superstition; trampled on by tyranny; ground into the dust beneath the weight of twO·despotisms, one religious, the 9ther political;. victims, on the one hand, of as cruel a Church and, on the other, of as heartless a .State as have ever blac.kened with ignQrance or reddened with blood 1:herecordsof civilized nations-to forget the wise.advice of their cooler leaders, give full· vent to the passions which their oppressors are aiming to :foment, .and rush headlong and blindly into riotous .and ruin ..

ous revolution. Ireland's true order: the wonderful Land League, the nearest approach,' on. a large scale, to perfect Anarchistic organization that ••.. the world. has yet· seen.' An immense number of .local groups, scatt~redover large sections' of tw~continents. sepa rated by three thousand miles of oceall; each group autono mous, each free; each composed of varying numbers of indi viduals of all ages, sexes, races, equally autonomous and free; each inspired by a common, central purpose; each supported entirely by volunt~ry contributions; each obeying its own judgment; each guided in the formation of its judgment and the .choice, of its conduct by the advice of a central council of.pickecl men,having no power to enforce its ,orders except that inherent in the convincing logic of the reasons on which the orders are based; all coordinated and federated, with a minimum ofma,chinery ,and with~ut sacrifice of spontaneity, into a vast workin.g u~it, whose unparalleled power makes . tyrants' tremble and armies ot no avail.

Ireland's shortest road to. success: no payment of rent now or hereafter; no payment of compulsory taxes now or here after; utter disregard of the British parliament and its so called laws; entire abstention from the polls henceforth; rig orous butnon~invasive ((boycotting" of deserters,'cowards, traitors, and oppressors; vigorous, intelligent, fearless prose. cution of the land !agi~ationbyvoice and pen; passive but stu1Jhorn resistance to every offensive act of police or mili tary; and, above·.all, universal readiness, tOigO tJ prison, and 2.46 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y promptness in filling. the places made vacant by those who may be sent to prison. Open revolution, terrorism, and the policy above outlined, which is Liberty, are the three courses from which Ireland now must choose one. Open revolution on the battle-field means sure defeat and another century of misery and oppression; terrorism, though preferable to revo lution, means years of demoralizing intrigue, bloody plot, base passion, and terrible revenges,-in short, all the horrors ofa long-continued national vendetta, with a doubtful issue at the end; Liberty mea.p.s certain, unhalting, and comparatively bloodless victory, the dawn of the sun of justice, andperpet ual peace and prosperity for a hitherto blighted land.

To the editor of the San Francisco People, Anarchism is evidently a new and puzzling doctrine. It having been pro pounded by an Anarchist from a public platform in that city that Anarchism must come about by peaceful methods and that physical force is never justifiable except in self-defense, the People declares that, except physical force, it can see but two methods of settling the labor question~ one the vol untary surrender of privileges by the privileged class, which it thinks ridiculous, and the other the ballot, which it rightly describes as another form of force. Therefore the People~ supposing itself forced to· choose between persuasion, the bal lot,· and direct physical force, selects the last. If I were forced to the alternative of leaving a question unsettled or attempting one of three ineffectual means of settling it, I think I should leave it unsettled. It would seem the wiser course to accept the situation. But the situation is not so hopeless. There is a fourth method of settling the difficulty, of which the People seems never to have heard,-the method of passive resistance, the most potent weapon ever wielded by man ~gainst oppression. Power feeds on its spoils, and dies when its victims refuse to be •despoiled. They can't persuade it to death; they can't vote it to death; they can't shoot it to death; but they can always starve it to death. When a deter mined body of people, sufficiently strong in numbers and force of character to command respect and make it unsafe to im prison them, shall agree to quietly close their doors in the faces of the tax-collector and the rentcollector, and shall, by issuing their own money in defiance of legal prohibition, at the same time cease paying tribute to the money-lord, governINDIVIDUAL LIBERTY ~47.

ment, with all the privileges which it grants and the monopo lies which it sustains, will go by the board. Does the People think this impracticable? I call its attention, then, to the vast work that was done 'six years ago in Ireland by the old Irish Land League, in defiance of perhaps the most powerful government on -earth, simply by shutting the door in the face of the rentcollector alone. Within a few short months from the '. inauguration of theCCNo-Rent" policy landlordry found itsell .upon, the verge, ot dissolution. It was •at its wits end. Confronted, by this intangible power, it knew not what to .do. It wanted nothing so much as to madden the stubborn peasantry ,into •becoming an actively belligerent mob which cOl.lldbe. mowed, down with •Gatling guns., But, barring a paltry" Qutbreak here"and. there" it ,was impossible to goad the farmers O'llt of their quiescence, and the grip of the landlords grew weaker every day.

ctAh! 'but" the movement failed," lean. hear the People reply•. Yes, it did fail; and why? Because the peasants Were actin.g,>not intelligently" in obedience to their wisdom, but blindly. in obedience to leaders who betrayed them at the critical moment. Thrown into jail by the government, these leaders, to secure their release, withdrew the CCNo-Rent Mani festo,"which they had issued i~ ,the first place not with any intention of freeing the peasants from the burden of. an CCim_ moral tax," but simply to make them. the tools of their politi cal advancement. Had the .people realized the power they were exercising and understood. the economic situation, they would not have. resumed the payment. of '. rent at. Parnell's bidding, and today they might have been free. The An archists do not propose to· repeat their mistake. That .. is why they are devoting themselves. entirely to the inculcation. of principles, especially of economic principles. In steadfastly pursuing this course regardless 'ofclamor, they alone are lay ingasure foundation for the successo£ the revolution, though to the People of San .Francisco, and to all people who are in such. a devil .0£ a hurry" that they can't .stop to think, they seem to be doing nothing at aU! .

III-TRADE AND INDUSTRY THE ATTITUDE ·OF ANARCHISM TOWARD INDUSTRIAL COMBINATIONS FROM September 13 to 16, 1899, the Civic Federation held a Conference on Trusts, in Chicago, before which it invited about one hundred individuals from every walk of life and of various political and economic beliefs to / discuss the question of trusts from every angle. Mr. Tucker was Qne of those invited to address the assembly, and his paper, which is here r~produced in full, excited more interest and comment, according to the .newspaper accounts at the time, than the remarks of any other speaker at the conference: HAVING to deal very briefly with the problem with which the so-caHed trusts confront us, I go at once to the heart of the subject, taking my stand on these propositions: That th~ r~ht to cooper~te is as unquesti?nable as the .right to con:ete; that the rIght to compete Involves the rIght to refratn rom competition; that cooperation is often a method of com..

etition, and that competition is always, in the larger view, a method of cooperation; that each is a legitimate, orderly, non-invasive exercise of the individual will under the social law of equal liberty; and that any man or institution attempt ing to prohibit or restrict either, by legislative enactment or by any form of invasive force,. is, in so far as such man or institution may fairly be judged by such attempt, an enemy of liberty, an enemy of progress, an enemy of society, and an enemy of the human race. Viewed in the .light of these irrefutable propositions, the !, trust, then, like every other industrial combination endeavor\ 24 8 IN D I VI D U ALL I B ER T Y 249 ingto doconectively nothing but what· each. member of the l;ombination rightfully may' endeavor to do individually, is per se, art· unimpeachable institution. To assail or control or denythisJor~ of cooperation on the ground that it is itself a denial of competition.is an absurdity. It is an absurdity, because it prove&too much. The trust is a denial of compe tit ion in no other sensethan that in whichcompetitionitsel£ is a denial of'c01ll:petiti<rn. The trust denies competition only by pl:"Qclucingandsel11. hs 1nore. che~ply than tl,os~ outsid~' of the trust can produce and sell; but in that sense every S1.1ccess"

f1.lLindividualcompetitor also denies competition. And if the trust; .is, to ,be suppressed f()r.such denial of competition, ,then the very .competition in the name of which the. trust is to he suppressed must itself be suppressed also. I repeat: the argu ment proves too much. The fa.ct is that there is one denial of competition which is ,the .' right of •aU, and that there is another denial ofc9mpetition which. is the right of, none. All ,of us, whether out of a trust ()r in it, have a right to deny compe tition by competing, but none of us, whether in a trust or out of it,-have a right to, deny competition by arbitrary decree,' by interference '. withvpluntary effQrt~ by forcible, suppression.of initiative. , " ,A.g:;t~n:Toclaimithatthe trust should be abolished or con 'trolled. bec~use' the great resources and consequent power of endu.rance which it' acquires by combination give it an undue advantage, and •thereby enable it to. crush competition, is eq~ally aft argument that proves too much. If John D. Rocke felle.rwere. to start a grocery store in his. individual capacitYt we should not think of suppressing, or restrict!ng 'or hamper ip.g,his enterpri~e, simply because, with his five hundred mil..

.lions, ,he could afford to sell groceries at less than cost '. until the day when. the accumul~ted ruins of all other grocerystores should ,afford him· a sure foundation for a profitable 'business. But, if Rocke.feller's po~session of.nve hundred millions is not agoodgrou.ndfor the suppression of his grocery store, no bettet,gtoundisthe control of still greater wealth £orthe suppression Qfhis oil trust. It is ,true that these vast,accumu lations under 'one, contfol are abnormal, and dangerous,but the reasons for them lie outside of and behind ap.d benea~hall t~ustsand in:dustrialcombinations,'7reasons which I shall come tPpresently,~feasons 'which. are'all" in some form, or .other, an '250 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY arbitrary denial of liberty; and, but for these reasons, but for these denials of liberty, John D. Rockefeller never could have acquired five hundred milliQns, nor would any combina tion of men be able to control an aggregation of wealth that could not be easily· and successfully· met by some other com bina tion of men.

Again: There is no warrant in reason for deriving a right to control trusts from the State grant of corporate privileges under which they are Qrganized. In the first place, it being pure usurpation to presume to endow any body of men with rights and exemptions that are not theirs already under the social law of equal liberty, corporate privileges are in them selves a wrong; and one wrong is not to be undone by at tempting to offset it with another .. But, even admitting the justice of corporation charters, the avowed purpose in grant ing them is to encourage cooperation, and thus stimulate in dustrial and commercial development for the benefit of the community. Now, to make this encouragement an excuse for its own nullification by a proportionate restriction of cooperation would be to add one more to those interminable imltations of the task of Sisyphus for which that stupid insti tution which we call the State has ever been notorious.

Of somewhat the same nature, but rather more plausible at first blush, is the proposition to cripple the trusts by stripping them of those law-created privileges and monopolies which are conferred, not upon trusts as corporate bodies, but upon sundry individuals and interests, ostensibly· for protection of the producer and inventor, but really for purposes of plunder, and which most trusts acquire in the process of merging the original capitals of their constituent menlbers. I refer, of course, to tariffs, patents, and copyrights. Now, tariffs, pat ents, and copyrights either have their foundations in justice, or they have not their foundations in justice. If they have their foundations in justice, why should men guilty of nothing but a legitimate act· of cooperation and. partnership be pun ished therefor by having their just rights taken from them? If they have not their foundations in justice, why should men who refrain from cooperation be left in possession of unjust privileges that are denied to men who cooperate? If tariffs are unjust, they should not be levied at all. If patents and copyrights are unjust, they should not be granted to anyone INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 2S1 whomsoever. But, if i. t~riffsand patents and copyrights are just, they should be levied. or granted in the interest of all who. are. entitled to their· henefitsfrom the viewpoint of the motives in·whicp •these privileges .. have. their ·origin, and to make .such levy or· grant dependent upon any foreign motive, such, for instance, as willingness to refrain from cooperation, would he sheer impertinence.

Nevertheless, at this point in the hunt.·for the solution of ~~:tt~S:s1r:;~e:;h~h:r:~.ce~~gth:.. ~h~t.. a::!s~~;\h:::~.:~ instea&of i growing out. of competition,· as IS so•generally sup posed,bave been made •possible only. by the absence of compe tition,J~nly .by the difficulty of. competition, only by the obstat~es placed •. in the way. of. competition,---only, in shott, ;Jt~a~~:l~i~f~il~;::.~~:::~~::of:t~:i.~~ just spoken, and in one or two •others, less direct, but still more far-reaching and i dea.dly in their destructive influence· upon enterprise. And it isi with this thought that· Anarchism, the doctrine· that .. in .aU matters there·. should. be·· the greatest amount of individuallibertyc()mpatiblewith equality of lib erty, .approaches the case in hand, and offers its diagnosis.and itS remedy. The first and great Jact to be noted .in the case, I have .. already hinted at. It is the fact that the trusts owe their p0-werto vast accumulation and concentration of wealth, un matched, and, under present conditions, unmatchable, by any ~qu~l accumulation of wealth, and that this accumulation of we~lthhas been effected ibythe ·combination of severalac cumulations only less vast ~nd in themselves already ~igantic, each of which owed its existence to one or more of the only means·by·. which· large ·fortunes can be rolled up,-interest~ rent,and monopolistic profit. But for. interest, rent, i and monopolistic profit,· therefore, trusts .would be impossible.

Now, what causes interest, rent, and monopolistic profit? For aU.there is but one'. cause,-the denial.of liberty, the suppres sion or restriction of competition, the legal creation of monop olies.. This single cause,'however, takes vario1.lsshapes. MOllopolisticprofit is due to that denial. of liberty which takes the shape of patent, copyright, and tariff legislation, pat~52 INDIVIDU AL LIBERTY ent and copyright laws directly forbidding competition, and tariff laws placing competition at a fatal disadvantage. Rent is due to that denial of liberty which takes the shape of land monopoly, vesting titles to land in individuals and as sociations which do not use it, and thereby compelling the non-owning users to pay tribute to the non-using owners as a condition of admission to the competitive market. Interest is due to that denial of liberty which takes the shape of money monopoly, depriving all individuals and asso ciations, save such as hold a certain kind of property, of the right to issue promissory notes as currency, and thereby com pelling all holders of property other than the kind thus priv ileged, as well as all non-proprietors, to pay tribute to the hold ers of the privileged property for the use of a circulating me diumand instrument of credit which, in the complex stage that industry and commerce have now reached, has become the chief essential of a competitive market.

Now, Anarchism, which, as I have said, is the doctrine that in all matters there should be the greatest amount of individ ual liberty compatible with equality of liberty, finds that none of these denials of liberty are necessary to the main tenance of equality of liberty, but that each and everyone of them, on the contrary, is destructive of equality of liberty. Therefore it declares them unnecessary, arbitrary, oppressive, and unjust, and· demands their immediate cessation. Of these four monopolies-the banking monopoly, the land monopoly, the tariff monopoly, and the patent and copyright monopoly-the injustice of all but the last-named is manifest even to a child. The right of the individual to buy and sell without being held up by a highwayman whenever he crosses an imaginary line called a frontier; the right of the individual to take possession of unoccupied land as freely as he takes possession of unoccupied water or unoccupied air; the right of the individual to give his IOU, in any shape whatsoever, under any guarantee whatsoever, or under no guarantee at all, to anyone willing to accept it in exchange for some thing else,----.all these rights are too .clear .for argument, and anyone presuming to dispute them simply declares thereby his despotic and· imperialistic instincts.

For the fourth of these monopolies, however,-the patent and copyright monopoly,-a more plausible case can be pre~NDIVIDU AL L'IBERTY 253 sented,£or the question .of .property in, ideas,is a. very subtle one.', The defenders of such property set up an analogy be tween the production of material things and the production ofabstractions, and on the strength of it declare that the man u£actur~r of mental products, no less than the manufacturer of material products, is a laborer worthy of his hire. So far, so good" •.•.. B\lt, to make .out their case, they 'are' obliged to go further,. and to claim, in violation of ,their own analogy, that.th~ ,laborer who crea.tes mental products, unlike the la borer who creates material. products, is entitled to exemption from' competition. Because the Lord, in his wisdom, 'or the Devil, in his malice, has so arranged-matters that the inventor and, the author produce naturally at a disadvantage, map, in his might, proposes to supply the divine or diabolic deficiency by an ••'artificial. arrangement that shall. not, only destroy this disadvantage,butac_tually give the inventor and author an advantage that no other Iflborer enjoys,~an advantage, more over,which, in practice,. goes, not to the inventor and the author, but to the promoter and' the publisher and the trust.

Convincing as the atgt1Jmentfor property in ideas may seem at:6rst· hearing, .• if you, think about it long enough, you will begin to be: st1;spicious. The first thing, perhaps, to arouse your.suspicion will be. the. fact that none ()fthe champions of such property :p,roposethe punishment,ofthosewho violate it, contenting ·themselves with subjecting the. offenders to the risk of damage suits, and that-nearly all of them are willing that even the risk of suit shall disappear when the proprietor h~senjoyed his right for a certain number 'of years. Now, if, ;tst~e .French writer, •• AiphonseKarr, .remarked, property· in ideas is a property like' any other propertY:J.then its violation, ' like the' violation of any other property, deserves criminal punishment, and' its life, like that of any other property, should be secure in right against tp.e lapse· of time. And, 1;hisnot. being claimed, by the upholders of property in' 'ideas, the suspiCion arises that such a lack of the courage of their (;onyictionsmay be·due to an instinctive :fe~1ing'that they are 'W'r()ng~ .

The necessity ·of being brief prevents me from examining thisphasepf my subject in detail. Therefore I must content myself with developing a single consideration, which, I hope, y,nlproye suggestive.

254 INDIVIDUAL LIBER TY I take it that, if it were possible, and if it had always been possible, for an unlimited number of individuals to use to an unlimited extent and in an unlimited number of places the same concrete things at the same time, there never would have been any such thing as the institution of property. Under those circumstances .the idea of property would never have entered the human mind, or, at any rate, if it had, would have been summarily dismissed. as too gross an absurdity to be seriously entertained for a moment. Had it been possible for the concrete creation or adaptation resulting from the ef forts of a single individual to be used contemporaneously by all individuals, including the creator or adapter, the realiza tion, or impending realization, of this possibility, far from being seized upon as an excuse for a law to prevent the use of this concrete thing without the consent of its creator or adapter, and far from being guarded against as an injury to one, would have been welcomed as a blessing to all,-in short, would have been viewed as a most fortunate element in the nature of things. The raison d'etre of property is found in the very fact that there is no such possibility,-in the fact that it is impossible in the nature of things for concrete objects to be used in different place,s at the same time. This fact existing, no person can remove from apother's possession and take to his own use another's concrete' creation without thereby de priving that other of all··opportunity to use that which he created, and for this reason it becaD;le socially necessary, since successful society rests on individual initiative, to protect the individual creator in the use of his concrete creations by for bidding others to use them without his consent. In other words, it became necessary to institute property in concrete things.

But all this happened so long ago that we of today have entirely forgotten why it happened. In fact, it is very doubt ful whether, at the time of the institution of property, those who effected it thoroughly realized and understood the motive of their course. Men sometimes do by instinct and without analysis that which conforms to right reason.~he institutors of property may have been governed by circumstances in hering in the nature of things, without realizing that, had the nature of things been the opposite, they would not have insti tuted property. But, be that as it may, even supposing that INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 255 they t~oroughly understodtheir course, we, at any rate; have pretty \nearly forgotten their understanding. .And so it ,has comec1bout that we have made ot property a fetich; that we consider' it .',a· sacred thing; ·that we ,have, set" up the god of property on an altar as, an object of 'idol-worship; and that most of us 'are not only doing what we can to strengthen and perpetuate his reign within the proper and original limits of his sovereignty, but also are mistakenly endeavoring to ex ten.d h~s dom.inion over things and. und.er c~rcuttlstanceswhich~ in their .', pivotal characteristic, are precisely the opposite of those out of which 'his power developed.

'Allof which is to~ay in'briefer compass, that from the jus ticeand social necessity of property, in concrete things ,we have erroneously assumed the justice and social necessity of property in abstract things,-that is, of property in ideas, with the result of.'nullifying to a,large and lamentable. extent that fortunate element, in ,the 'nature of things, in this 'case not hypothetical, but real,--namely, the immeasurably fruit f~lpossibility, of the. use of abstract things by any number of individuals in any ,number of plac,esat precisely the same time, without in the slightest· degree impairing. the use thereof by .. any single individual. '.Thus we "have,hastily and stupidly jumped to the conclusion that property in concrete things"log" icallyimplies 'property in abstract things, whereas, if we had had the' care and the ,keenness to accurately analyze, we should have£oundthat\thevery.reason which dictates theadvisabil ..

ityofiproperty in concrete ,things denies the advisability. of property, in abstract things. We see.here a .curious inst~nce of ~h1tJrequent mental, phenomenon,-the precise inversion of the truth by a superficiaL view. Furthermore, were the.,conditions the .same 'in,., both cases~ and concretethings capableof use by differentpersonsin-ai£ ferent:places, at the same time, even then, 1 say, the institu tion .' of property in concrete thillgs, though under those. con ditions manifestly absurd, would be infinitely less destructive of individual opportunities,., and therefore infinitely' less' dan ger~usand dett1mental to, human welfare, than is the, institu tion. of property in abstract things. For it is easy to see that~ even should .,we. accept the rather'startling hypothesis. that .,a single ear of corn is continually and permanently consumable, otr1ther incQJJjsumable"by an indefinite number of persons 2.56 INDIVIDUAL LIBER TY scattered over the surface of the earth, still the legal institu tion of property in concrete things that would secure t(\ the sower of a gr~in of corn the exclusive use of the resultant ear would not, in so doing, deprive other persons of the right to sow other grains of corn and become exclusive users of their respective harvests; whereas the legal institution of property in abstract things not only secures to the inventor, say, of the steam engine the exclusive use rof the engines which he actu ally makes, but at the same time deprives all other persons of the right to make for themselves other engines involving any of the same ideas. Perpetual property in ideas, then, which is the logical outcome· of any .theory of property in abstract things, would, had it been in force in the lifetime of James Watt, have made his direct heirs the owners of at. least nine tenths of the now existing wealth of the world; and, had it been in force in the lifetime of the inventor of the Roman alphabet, nearly all the highly civilized peoples of the earth would be today the virtual slaves of that inventor's heirs, which is but another way of saying that, instead of becoming highly civilized, they would have remained in the state of semi-barbarism. It seems to me that these two statements, which in my view are incontrovertible, are in .themselves suf..

ncient to condemn property in ideas forever. If then, the four monopolies to which I have referred are unnecessary denials of liberty, and therefore unjust denials of liberty, and if they are the sustaining causes of interest, rent, and monopolistic profit, and if, in turn, this usurious trinity is the cause of all vastaccumtllations of wealth,-for further proof of which propositions I must, because of the limitations of my time, refer you to the economic writings of the An archistic school,-it clearly follows that the adequate solution of the problem with which the trusts confront us is to be found only in abolition of these monopolies and the consequent guarantee of perfectly free competition. . The most serious of these four monopolies is unquestionably the money monoply, and I believe that perfect freedom in finance alone would wipe out nearly all the trusts, or at .least render them harmless,· and perhaps helpful. Mr. Bryan told a very important truth when he declared that the destruction of the money trust would at the same time kill all the other trusts. Unhappily, Mr. Bryan does not propose to destroy the INDIVIDUAL LIBER TY 257 money trust. He •• wishes simply to transform it from a gold trust into a .gold. and silver trust'. The m()ney trust canllot be destroyed. by the remonetization of silver.,That would be only a mitigation of the monopoly, not the abolishment of it.

It can be .abolishedonly by monetizing all wealth that has a market'value,-that is, by giving' to· all wealth the right of representati9n by currency, and to all currency, the right-to circulate wherever it can on its own merits. And this is not only a solution o£ the'~rus~ question, but ~he :&rs~ s~ep that should be taken, and the greatest single step that can be takehj in economic and social refortll. I have tried, in the few ritinutes allotted to me, to state COn'cisely the' attitude of Anarchism toward industrial.cQmbin~ tions. .It discountenances all direct attacks on them, all inter .. ference .with them, all anti-trust. legislation whatsoever. In fact, it regards' industrial combinations as very useful when~ ever they spring into existence in ... response to demand created in a healthy social body. If at present they are baneful, it is. because' they .are symptoms of a social disease.'originally caused and .persistently aggravated by· a regimen of tyranny and quackery. Anarchis~ wants to call off the quacks, and -give liberty,· nature's great. cure-all, a chance to do its··perfect work.

Free access to the world of mat~er~abo1ishing land monop oly;freeaccess to the w~rld o(mind, abolishing ideamonop .. 011; £reeaccess to al1.untaxed and unprivileged •market, abol... ishing tax:iff m011opoly.and moneymonopoly,--secure thes~, and all the'·rest shall be added unto you. For liperty is the relt1~dy of every.social evil, and ·to Anarchy the world .must look at last for any endurin$ guarantee of social order. STRIKES AND FORCE In. thetamous HOl).lesteadStrike, the. rights and inter estsof 'both ,capital and labor were so intermingled' and jumbled. in the discussions in the daily press that it ,was difficult for the .man(on. the street to form an impar;tial opinion; it was not· easy even for the student of sociology 25\8 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY to reach a rational conclusion. So the editor of Liberty stepped into the fray: to reprove one of the most vicious of the muddlers: REGARDING methods, one of the truths that has been most steadily inculcated by this journal has been that social ques tions canno~ be settled by force. Recent events have only confirmed this view. But when force comes, it sometimes leads incidentally to the teaching of other lessons than that of its own uselessnessand becomes thereby to that extent useful. The appeal to force at Homestead affords a signal example of such incidental beneficence; for it has forced the capitalistic papers of the country, and notably the New York Sun, to take up a bold defense of liberty in order to protect property. Now, all that Anarchism asks is liberty; and when the enemies of liberty can find no way of saving their own interests except by an appeal to liberty, Liberty means to make a note of it and hold them to it.

Applied to the conduct of the Homestead strikers, this principle of equal lil;>erty, of which the Sun's words are an expression, instead of condemning it as the Sun pretends, pal liates and even excuses it; for, before these strikers violated the equal liberty of others, their own right to equality of lib erty had been wantonly and continuously violated. But, ap plied to the conditctof capitalists generally, it condemns it utterly, for the original violation of liberty in this matter is traceable directly to them. This is no wild assertion, but a sober statement of fact, as I will explain. It is not enough, however true, to say that, ceif a man has labor to sell, he must find some one with money to buy it"; it is necessary to add the much more important truth that, if a man has labor to sell, he has a right to a free market in which to sell it,-a market in which no one shall be pre vented by restrictive laws from honestly obtaining the money to buy it. If the man with hbor to sell has not this free mar ket, then his liberty is violated and his property virtually taken from him. Now, such a market has constantly been denied, not only to the laborers· at Homestead, but to the laborers of the entire civilized world. And the men who have denied it are the Andrew Carnegies. Capitalists of whom this INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY; 2.59 Pittsburg £orge-masterisa typical representative have placed and kept upon the statute,-books all sortsQf, prohibitions and taxes, (of which ,the customs. tariff. is ,among the least harm ful) "designed to limit and effective in limiting" the, number of bidders for the labor of those who have.,labor to selL If there were no,tariffs on imported goods;if'titles to unoccupied land were not recognized by. the State; above all, ,if the right. to issue money were not vested in a monopoly,--bidders for the labor ofCarn-egie's employees wO\1ld become so numerous that the offer would soon equal the laborer's product." Now, to.sol emnly tell these men who are thus prevented bylaw from getting thew-ages which their labor would command in a free market that they have a •right ,to reject any price that may be offered for their labor is undoubtedly to ,speak a formal. truth, but it is also to utter a rotten commonplace and a cruelim pertinence. Rather tell the capitalists, that· the, •laborer, is entitled toa free market, and that they,.in.denying it to him, are guiltYQf criminal invasion. This would be not' only a formaL truth, but an opportune applica.tion of a vital prin ciple.

Perhaps,it will be claimed in answer to this that the laborers, being voters, are responsiblefor any monopolies that exist,and are thereby debarred from pleading them, as an excuse for violating the liberty of their employers. This is only true to the extent to which we may consider these laborers as the ufools" ,p~rsuaded ',by the capitalists who are the uscoundrels" that ~tviolence(in the form of enforced monopoly) is a friend of the workmen"; which 40es not make it less unbecoming in. the scoundrels. to rebuke and 'punish the fools for any disastrous ·consequences that may arise out·,of this appalling combination. of scoundrelism. and folly. Conspicuous,among the $coundrels'who have upheld these 1l1onopoliesis the editor of the New York Sun. ,If heteUs truth to-day, he tells it. as the devil.quotesscripture,-to' suit hispurpose~ . He wiUnever consent to an application of equal lib~rty in the interest of lahor, for he belongs to the brother noodof thieves who prey upon labor. If h~only would, we Anarchists ,would meet him with cheerful acquiescencein .its fullest, application '.' to the interest. of capital. Let Carnegie, D~na&:C9. first see to it that every law in violatioJ).of equal liberty is· removed from the statute-books .. If, after thai, a~y .260 INDIVIDUAL LIBER TY laborers shall interfere with the rights of their employers, or shall use force upon inoffensive tescabs," or shall attack their employers' watchmen, whether these be Pinkerton detectives, sheriff's deputies, or the State militia, I pledge myself that, as an Anarchist and in consequence of my Anarchistic faith, I will be among the first to volunteer as a member of a force to repress these disturbers of order and, if necessary, sweep them from the earth. But while these invasive laws remain, I must view every forcible conflict that arises as the consequence of an original violation of liberty on the part of the employing classes, and, if any sweeping is done, may the laborers hold the broom! Still, while my sympathies thus go with the under dog, I shall_never cease to proclaim my conviction· that the annihilation of· neither party can secure justice, and that the only effective sweeping will be that which clears from the statute-book every restriction of the freedom of the market.

Of the multitude of novel and absurd and monstrous sug gestions called forth from the newspapers by the. telegraphers' strike, none have equalled in novelty and absurdity and mon strosity the sober proposal of the editor of the New .York Nation, that unsentimental being who prides himself on his hard head, that hereafter any and all employees of telegraph companies, railroad companies, and the post-office department who may see fit to strike work without first getting the cot'- sent of their employers be treated as are soldiers who desert or decline to obey the commands of their superior officers; in other words (we suppose, though the Nation does not use these other words), that they. may be sUlV-marily court-mar tialled and shot. During the rebellion, when all of us, except the much abused cccopperheads," temporarily lost control of our reason ing faculties (we dare say that even the editor of th~ N.ation at that time forgot himself and became sentimental for once), we got very angry with Carlyle for patly putting the Ameri can Iliad in a nutshell and epigrammatically establishing the substantial similarity between the condition of slave labor at the South and that of so-called tefree" labor at the North.

England's blunt old sham-hater was answered with much bois terous declamation about ((freedom of contract," and his at,.. tention was proudly called to the fact that the laborer of the INDIVIDUA,L LIBERTY 2.61 North could follow.·his own sweet will, leaving his employer when he SClW'fitJlattachinghimself to any other willing to hire !lim, or, if he preferred,setting up In business for himself, and employing others. He was at liberty~ it was.. loudly proclaimed by our .abolitionists and free..traders, to work when he pleased, where he pleased, how. he pleased, and on what tei-rns he pleased, ,and nomClncouldsay him nay. What are we to thin.k, tnen, when.the ,chief newspaper exponent of the ~~free dorn of contr1ct" philosophy,deliber1tely.s1crihceg the only answer tnClt it could >make to Carlyle's indictment by propos ing ·,the. introe;JuctipIlof. a military. discipline into industry, which,inassimilating the laborer to' the soldier, would make him-wh~tthe soldier is~a slave? Think? Simply this, that the, hypocriticalthieyesandtyrahts who for years have heen endeavoring •• to l11a,ke·.their victims believe. themselves freemen ·see that the •.•. game is' nearly up, and that the time is£ast _approaching when they must take by the horns the bull of outraged ,industry~which, .1lladdened'by the discovery of its ••hitherto. invisjbleqhains, is making frantic ·efforts to burstthemit knows not h,ow. It is a point gained. An enemy in, the open•field is '. less formidable than, one". in ambush.

When •the capitalis~s shallbe£orcea" to show their true colors, the la~orers will then kn0w against whom •they are fighting. Fighting, did we say?, Yes. For. the laborer in these days is a sQldier,though not in the sense which the Nation meant. His employer is not, as the Nation ,would have it, his superior officer, but simply a,member of an ,opposing army. The whole industrial and commercial.world is in a state of inter necine war, in which theproletaires are.massed on one side and the proprietor~ on the other. This is the fact that justi.. fies strikers in subjecting society to what the Nation calls a upartial paralysis." Jt is a war. nleasure. The laborer•sees that he does not ,get his due..• He knows that the' capitalists have beenintrusted bysQciety, .through itsexternal represen tative, the State,' with privileges which enable them to control production and distribution; and that, in abuse of these privileges,. they have seen' to it that the demand for labor should fall far below the supply, .and have then taken advan tClgeof the nece~sities of the laborer andr-educed· his wages.

Tq.tl~Pore~and hisfeUows> therefore, resort to the<policy of uniting, in such. numbers in a refusal to work at the reduced '262 INDIVIDU AL LIBERTY rate that the demand for labor becomes very much greater than the supply, and then they take advantage of the necessi ties of the capitalists and society to secure 'a' restoration o£ the old rate of wages, and perhaps an increase upon it. Be the game fair or foul, two can play at it; and those who begin it should not complain when they get the worst of it. If society objects to being Uparalyzed," it can very easily avoid it. All it needs to do is to adopt the advice which Liberty has long been offering it, and withdraw from the monopolists the privi leges which it has granted them. Then, as Colonel William B. Greene has shown in his ((Mutual Banking," as Lysander Spooner has shown in his works on finance, and as Proudhon has shown in his uOrganization of .Credit," capital will no longer be tied up by syndicates, but will become readily available for investment on easy terms; productive enterprise, taking new impetus, will soon assume enormous proportions; the work to be done will always surpass the number of labor ers .to do it; and, instead of the employers being able to say to the laborers, as .the unsentimental Nation would like to have them, UTake what we offer you, or the troops shall be called out to shoot you down," the laborers will be able to say to their employers, teIf you desire our services, you must give us in return an equivalent of their product,"-terms which the employers will be only too glad to accept. Such is the only solution of the problem of strikes, such the only way to turn the edge of Carlyle's biting satire.

LABOR AND ITS PAY Communists and State Socialists on the one hand and Anarchists and Individualists on the other will never be able to agree on the question of wages, because the re ward of labor represents one of. the fundamental differ ences between them. Here is a specimen of the eternal 'controversy, from the pen of Mr. Tucker: IN No. 121 of Liberty, criticising an attempt of Kropotkine to identify Communism and Individualism, I charged him INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 26, with ignoring uthe real question. of whether· Communism will permit· the individuill to .labor inpependently,own tools,· sell his labor or his· products,. and buy the labor or. products of others." . In Herr Most's eyes this IS so outra,geous that, in re printing it, he puts the wordsUthe labor of others" in large ·blilck type .. Most being aCommun~st, he must, to be con sistent, object to the purchase andsille of anything. whatever; but why he should particularly object to the purchase and sale of labor~sn1ore than I can understand. IteaU y , tnthe last analysis, labor .is the only thing that .has any title· to be bought or sold. Is there any just basis of price except cost?

Andis .. there .anything .' that' costs except labor or suffering (another narpe' for labor)? Labor should be paid! Hor ti~le'lisn't it? .Why, ~tho\1ght that~he£act that it is not paId.-,va$the. whole gnevance. cCUnpaId labor" .has been the chief complaint of •all Socia1ists~ .and that .labor should get its reward has .been theirchie£ contention. Suppose I had said to Kropotkine that the real question is whether Communism will permit individuals to exchange their labor or products on their own· tetms. . Would Herr .. Most have been so shocked? WQuld he have printed. that in black type? .Yet in another form I said precisely that. If the men who oppose wages-that is, .the purchase and sale.of .labor--were. capable ..• of .analyzing their thought and feelings, they would see that what. really excites. their anger is not the ·fact that labor· is. bought and sold,.but the fact· that one class of men <are dependent for their living upon the sale of their labor, while another class of men are relieved of the necessity ·of·labor by being legally privileged to sell something that is not htbor,· and that, .but for the •privilege, would' be enjoyed by all gratuitously. And to such a state of things lam .• as. much opposed'as anyone. But the' minute you re~ mov~ privilege, the'.class that now. enjoy it· will be .forced·to sell their labor, and then, when there will be nothing but labor with which to buy labor, the distinction between. wage payers and wage-receivers will be wiped-out, and every man will, be a laborer exchanging with fellow;..laborers. Not to.

abolish wages,.but •to •make every. man dependent upon wages and secure to •every man. his whole wages is the ai~of Anarchistic· Socialism. What, Anarchistic Socialism .aims to .,/' 264 IN D I VID U ALL I BE R TY abolish is usury. It does not want to deprive labor of its reward; it wants to deprive capital of its reward. It does not hold that labor should not be sold; it holds that capital should not be hired at usury. But, says Herr Most, this idea of a free labor market from which privilege is eliminated is nothing but ((consistent Man chesterism." Well, what better can a man who professes Anarchism want than that? For the principle of Manches terism is liberty, and consistent Manchesterism is consistent adherence to liberty. The only inconsistency of the Man chester men lies in their infidelity to liberty in some of its phases. And this infidelity to liberty in some of its phases is precisely the fatal inconsistency of the Freiheit school,-the only difference between its adherents and the Manchester men being that in many of the phases in which the latter are· in fidel the former are faithful, while in many of those in which the latter are faithful the forlIler are infidel. Yes, genuine Anarchism is consistent Manchesterism, and Communistic or pseudo-Anarchism is inconsistent Manchesterism. CCI thank thee, Jew, for teaching me that word."

Kropotkine, arguing in favor of Communism, says that he has Halways observed that workers with difficulty understand the possibility of a wage-system of labor-checks and like arti ficial inventions of Socialists," but has been ((struck On the contrary by the easiness with which they always accept Com munist principles." Was Kropotkine ever struck by the easi ness with which simple-minded. people accept the creation theory and the difficulty with which they understand the pos sibility of evolution? If so, did ·he ever use this fact as an argument in favor of the creation hypothesis? Just as it is easier to rest satisfied with the statement, ((Male and female created he them," than to trace in the geological strata the intricacies in the evolution of species, so it is easier to say that every man shall have whatever he wants than to find the economic law by which every man may get the equivalent of his product. The ways of Faith are direct and easy to follow, but their goal isa quagmire; whereas the ways of Science, however devious and difficult to tread, lead to solid ground· at last. Communism belongs to the Age of Faith: Anarchistic Socialism to the -Age of Science~ I N D I V I D U ALL I B ER T Y 265 THEPOSTQFFICE AND PRIVATE MAIL SERVICE THE Winsted Press makes' a long' le~der to ridicule the Anarchists for favoring .private enterprise in 'the letter-carry ing' business. It grounds its ridicule on' .two clajms,-first, that private enterprise would charge high rates of postage, and, second, that it would not furnish transportation to Qut of-the-way points. An indisputable fact has frequently been -cited in Llberly which instantly and. utterly overthrows .bo~h of these claims. .Its frequent .citation, however, has had no effect upon the believers in a igovernment postal monopoly.

I do nQtexpect another repetition to produce any effect upon t~eWil1stedPress; still I· shall try it. Some· half-dozen .years ago, when letter postage was still thre.e.cents, Wells, Fargo & Co. were doing a large ·'businessill ca.rrying letters throughout the Pacific States and Territories~ Their' ~te was five cents, more than three of which they ex pende ,as ,the legal monopoly required, in purchasing of the Unite S/tates a stal11:pedenvelope.in which. to carry the letter intrus ed to ,their care. That is to say, on every letter which they c rriedthey' had to pay a. tax of mote than three cents. Exclus ve ·ofthi$ tax, Wells, Fargo· & Co. got less than two cents or each letter which' they carried, while the government got "th ee cents for each letter· which it carried itself,and more han three cents for' each letter" which. Wells, Fargo & Co.ca. ried~', On' the other hand, it .cost every individual five cents' o send by Wells, Fargo & Co., anq. only three to senq by the government. Moreover, the area 'covered was one in which immensity of distance, sparseness!ot population, and irregulrities of surface made out-of-the-way points \lnusually difficull" of .access.. Still, in spite of all" these· advantages on the side of the g(!).vernment,its patronage steadily ·dwigdled, Whi.1e~hat of Wells, Fargo & Co. as .steadily grew. Pecl.lni ~rily tis,' of course, was' a benefit to· the-government. But forthi very reason such a condition' of: affairs was all the more •.•ortifying .•Hence~ thepostma~ter+general sent a spe~ . cial •• cOJ;nmissionerto investigate. the matter .. He ,fulfilled his duty·apd .reported to his superior .that Wells, F~rgo & Co.

were complying with the law in every particular, and were taking· a~ay. the .business of the government by furnishing a 266 I N D I V I D U ALL I B ER T Y prompter and securer mail service, not alone to principal points, but to more poihts and remoter points than were in cluded in the government list of post-offices. Whether this state of things still continues I do not know. I presume, however, that it does, though the adoption of two cent postage may have changed it. In either case the fact is one that triumphs over all possible sarcasms. In view of it, what becomes of Editor Pinney's fear of ruinous rates of postage and his philanthropic I anxiety on account of the dwellers in Wayback and Hunkertown? Appreciating the necessity of at least seeming to meet the indisputable fact which I opposed to its championship of gov ernment postal monopoly, the Winsted Press presents the fol lowing ghost of an answer, which may be as convincing to the victims of political superstition as most materializations are to the victims of religious superstition, but which, like those materializations, is so imperceptible to the touch of the hard-headed investigator that, when he puts his hand upon it, he does not find it there.

«The single instance of Wells, Fargo & Co., cited by B. R. Tucker to prove the advantage of private enterprise as a mail carrier, needs fuller explanation of correlated circumstances to show its true significance. As stated by Mr. Tucker, this company hal( a dozen years ago did a large business carrying letters throughout the Pacific States and Territories to distant and sparsely populated places for five cents per letter, paying more than three to the government in compliance with postal law and getting less than two for the trouble, and, though it cost the senders more, the service was enou~ better than government's to secure the greater part of the business." This reStatement of my statement is fair enough, except that it but dimly conveys the idea thatW ells, Fargo & Co. were carrying, not only to distant and sparsely populated places, but to· places thickly settled and easy of access, and were beating the government there also,-a fact of no little importance.

«Several facts may explain this.: I. Undeveloped govern ment service in a new country, distant from the seat of government. " Here the ghost appears, all form and no substance. «John Jones is a better lJ1essenger than John Smith," deINDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 2.67 clares .the Winsted Press,. C(because·•Jones can run over stony· ground, .while Smith cannot. " uIndeed!" I .answer; ((why, then, did Smith outrun Jones the other day in going from San FranciSC0 1 1 toWayback?". (COhl ,that may be ex plained," the .Press. ejoins, CCby the fact that the ground was stony." The Press .had complained. against the Anarchistic theory. of free. com etition in postal service that private en. t.erp,rise WQul.d nQhreach remote p<>ints, 'While SO,vernment does reach. them. I proved by .facts that private enterprise was more successful thangover1'J.ment in .reaching remote points. ,What sense, then, is there in answering that these poiJits are distant from the government's headquarters and that it had not developed its service? The whole point lies in the fact that private enterprise· was the first to develop its service and .the most successful in maintaining it at a high degree ofefliciency.

((2. GovernmJnt competition which kept WeUs, Fargo from charging monopoly prices." If the object of a government postal service is to' keep private enterpri$e' from charging high prices, no more striking iI1ustr~tion of the 'stupid wayin which government wor-ksto achieve its objects could be, cited than its imposition of a tax of two (then three) .cents a letter upon private postal com papies. It is obvious that this tax was all that kept Wells, Fargo & Co•• fro,m reducing their letter-ra,te to three or even two cents, in .which case the government probably would have .lost 'the remnant of business which it .still· commanded. This is guarding againstmonopolYfprices with a vengeance! ':(he c011lpetitor, whether governme~t or individual, who must tax his •rival. in order to live· is nol competitor at all, but. a monopolist himself. It is not gov~rnment' competition that Anar~histsare iighting,butgovern~ent monopoly. It should be .• ".dded, .howeyer, that, pending t~e transformation of gov ernments into voluntary associations, even government com petitiQnis unfa~r,because anassoc~ation supported by com pulsory taxation could always, if it I chose, carry. themails.at less than cost and tax the' deficit out of. the. people.

tC 3. Other paying business whic,h trought the company into .contact with remote districts and! warranted greater satt guards to convreyance than gover~entthen offered to its mail. carriers." . I 268 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY Exactly. What does it prove? Why, that postal service and expr.ess service can be most advantageously run in con junction, and that private enterprise was the first to find, it out. This is one of the arguments which the Anarchists use. «4. A difference of two cents was not appreciated. in a country where pennies were unknown." Here the phantom attains the last degree of attenuation. If Mr. Pinney will call at the Winsted post-office, his post master will tell-what common sense ought to have taught him-that of all the stamps used not over five per cent. are purchased singly, the rest being taken two, three, five, ten, a hundred, or a thousand at a time. Californians are said to be very reckless in the matter of petty expenditures, but I doubt if any large portion of them would carry their prodigality so far as to pay five dollars a hundred for stamps when they could get them at three dollars a hundred on the next corner.

((These conditions do not exist elsewhere in this country at present. Therefore the illustration proves nothing." Proves nothing! Does it not prove that private enterprise outstripped the government under the conditions that then and there existed, which were difficult enough for both, but extraordinarily embarrassing for the former? «We know that private enterprise does not afford express facilities to sparsely settled districts throughout the country." I know nothing of the kind. The express companies cover practically the whole' country. They charge high rates to points difficult of access; but this is only just. The govern ment postal rates, on the contrary, are unjust. It certainly is not fair that my neighbor, who sends a, hundred letters to New York every year, should have to pay two cents each on them, though the cost of carriage is but one cent, simply be cause the goverpment spends a dollar in carrying for me one letter a year to Wayback, for which I also pay two cents. It may be said, however, that where each individual charge is so small, a schedule of rates w()uld cause more tr{)uble and ex pense' than saving; in other words, that to keep books would be poor economy. Very likely; and in that case no one would find it out sooner than the private mail companies~ This, however,. is not the .case in the express business, where parcels of all sizes and· weights are carried.

UNo more would it mail ,facilities. A remarkable e~ception only proves the rule. But, Hprivate enterprise can and will do so much, why doesn't it do it noW;? ,The law stands no mor~ in the way of.'Adams Express. tliail it did in the way of the. Wells. & Fargo, express." This~eminds' me of 'the question with ,which Mr. Pinney closed his discussion with me regarding ,free money. He de... sired to' know why the Anarchists did not start a free 'money systern, s~yim.g that they ought to be shrewdenough to devise some,way of evading the law.• As if any competing business could beex:pected to succeed, iiit h~d 'to spend a .fortune inconte~ting lawsuits or in paying a heavy ~ax to which its rival was 'not, subject. So handicapped, it could not possibly succeed unless its work w:as_of such a nature, as to admit, the widest range of variation in point of<exqellence. This was the. caSe in the competition between Wells" Fargo &' Co. and the government. The territory covered was so ill-adapted to postal facilities that it, afforded a wide margin for the display of superiority, and Wells,.Fargo & Co. took. advantage of this to such an extent that they beat the government in spite of their' handicap. But in the territory covered by Adams Ex press it ,is essentially different. There the postal service is so simple a matter that the possible margin of superiority would not warrant an extra charge of even.one cent a letter. But I am •• told, that Adams Express would be only too glad of the ~'chance to carry letters at one ,cent each, if there were no tax to .be paid on, the ·business. If the' governmentalists think that the' United States can beat Adams Express" why do they not. dare to place the two on ~qual terms? •That. is a fair qu~tion.. But when a man's hands are tied, to ,ask him why he. doesn't :fight is a coward's question.

Yes, as The Anti-Monopolist says, .'Uncle Sam carrie~ one hundred pounds of newspapers. two thousand miles, not for twodollars,bl,lt for one dollar, pays the railroad more than its services are· "worth, and. loses about :fiveaollars a 'trip. Yes, a~ express company would ch'lrgetwenty' donars ,for the. same service,'because it knows' it would. be folly to attempt to compete with theone-dollar rate, 'and thetefore charges for its necessarily limited business•such rates as those who desire a guarantee of prornptness andsec.urity axe willing to pay.

2.70 IN D I VI D U ALL I BE R TY Uncle Sam nevertheless continues to carry at the one-dollar rate, knowing that this is a good way to induce the newspapers to wink at his villainies, and that he can and does make up in two ways his loss of :five dollars a trip,-I, by carrying one hundred pounds of letters two thousand miles for thirty-two ·dollars and forbidding anybody else to carry them for less, although the express companies would be glad of the chance to do the same service for sixteen dollars; and, .2, by taking toll from all purchasers of whiskey and tobacco at home, and of' various other articles from foreign countries'. And yet some people don't know why the thousands of officeholders who are pulling away at the public teats are get ting fat while the people are getting poorer. In fact, some people don't know anything at all except, as Josh Billings said, ((a grate menny things that ain't so." It is very unfortunate that such people are intrusted with the editing of newspapers.

In 1907 a Chicago millionaire came forward with an ofter to take over the postal service of the country, re duce rates on first and second-class matter one-half, and pay over 'to the government all surplus earnings above seven per cent. on the capital invested. This announce ... ment led' the Springfield (Mass.) Republican to ask [whether his company would also agree to preserve to the iemployees of the service the hours and wages now ac tcorded by the government; and, it then facetiously added: \JtWe shall next have syndicates offering to do the policing of the country on a private monopoly basis, and then taking charge of public education." Mr. Tucker made clear the position of Anarchism on this 'point: '''':~'''''''"''>'~-~>,i, {~ I understand that there was some doubt in Chicago whether. /the millionaire refered to ((meant business" and was entitled to Iserious consideration. But suppose a like offer to be made by \ a known and entirely competent and responsible or corpora ltion; would congress and Teddy [President Roosevelt] en "~ertain it for a moment? Would the intelligent and earnest t~ublican urge them to accept it? If not, why not? The INDIVIDUAL LIBE R'fY 271 hint.in regard to the. etnpJoyeesls rather. unfortunate. The government has not been.a good employer in the postal service, as eve.rybodyknows. It pays low wages, requires hard. work, and forbids the clerks and mail-carriers to bother congress or to •agitate· .politically against unfriendly individuals in .that body.. A private corporation could not in these days do m,uch worse. . . . .. '~ But suppose further that .the aforesaid responsible bidqet t should ~gre~. to raise the wages and shortenthe hours of, the !

employees, and· to .refer disputes •• to arbitrators named by,J Teddy himself; would the Republican·. then. favor acceptancei of the offer? I doubt it. But .. why .not? What would be its j objection? As to the remark ablll1t the private 'police and J private education it is not the paradox, the reauctio ad ab-l sllraum, our.·friend.·imagines .. it to he. Underhealthyeco-i n0tnic \and political conditions private. enterprise in those i spheres wO\lld be not only. Hpossihle,"buteminently desir-I a.ble. .And Anarchists contemplate even a private police with-I out the least consciousness of particular audacity.",,/ , .• .... .,#-p.~f,f, LIBERTY OR. AUTHORITY It ·has alwars been difl1cult todnduce the superficial thinker to distinguish between •.things .. libertarian and things authoritarian. Hence.·.even·. trained ~conomists have frequently. confused State Socialism andCommun ism with Anarchism. In the following article the ed.itor of •Liberty proceeded to clarify the ·.subject· for one who had.failed·to .make the proper discrimination: PROFESSOR. SUMNER, who occupies the ·chair of political economy at Yale, addressed recently the. New Haven Equal Rights Debating Club. He told the State Socialists and Com munists of. that city much .wholesome truth. But, as far as I·· can Iearnfrom the· newspaper reports,which may of course have left out, as usual, the most important .things .that the speaker·.said, he made· no .discrimination in his criticisms.

He appears to have entirely ignored the fact that the Anar2.72 IN D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y chistic Socialists are the most unflinching champions in exi~t ence of his own pet principle of laissez faire. He branded Socialism as the summit of absurdity, utterly failing to note that one great school of Socialism says teAmen" whenever he scolds government for invading the individual, and only re grets that he doesn't scold it oftener and more uniformly. Referring to Karl Marx's position that the employee is forced to give up a part of his product to the employer ,(which, by the way, was Proudhon's position before it was Marx's, and Josiah Warren's before it was Proudhon's), Pro fessor Sumner asked why the employee does not, then, go to work for himself, alld answered the question very truthfully by saying that it.is because he has no.capital. But he did not proceed to tell why he has no capital and how he can get some. Yet this is the vital point in dispute between An archism and privilege, .between Socialism and so-called politi cal economy. He did indeed recommend the time dishonored virtues of industry and economy as a mean~ of getting capital, but every observing person· knows that the most industrious and economical persons are precisely the ones who have no capital and can get none. Industry and economy will' begin to a.ccumulate capital when idleness and extravagance lose their power to steal it, and not before. , Professor Sumner also told .Herr Most and his followers that their proposition to have the employee get capital by forcible seizure is the most short-sighted economic measure possible to conceive of. Here again he is entirely wise and sound. Not that the17e may not be circumstances when such seizure would be advisable as a political, war, or terroristic measure calculated to induce political changes that will give freedom to natural economic processes; but as a directly eco nomic measure it must always and inevitably be, not only futile, but reactionary. In opposition to all arbitrary distri bution I stand with Professor Sumner with all my heart and mind. And so does every logical Anarchist.

But, if the employee cannot at present get capital by in dustry and economy, and if it will do him no good to get it by force, how is he to· get it with benefit to himself and injury to no other? Why don't you tell us that, Professor Sumner? You will, to be sure, send us a stray shot somewhere near the mark when, in answer to a question why shoemakers have no LNIDIVIDUAL LIBEltTY 273 shoes, you said that, where such a condition. of things pre... ,vailed, it was due to sQmeevilwork of the governmerit,--said evil •• work heingmanif¢stat present. in the currency and taxa tion.Butwhat is the precise nature .of the evils thus mani fest? Tell me tha·tdefinitely, and thenl will tell you whether you area consistent man. 1 fancy that, if lshould ask you what the great evil in our taxation is, you would answer that it is the protective. tariff. Now, the protective tari£f .is.~n evil cert1inly: ~nd ~n out..

rage; but, SO far as it affects the power of the laborer to accumulate capital, it is a.~omparatively small one. In .fact, its abolition.~ unaccompanied by the abolition of the banking monopoly, would takeaway from· very large classes of laborers not only what little chance they now have of getting capital, but also their power of sustaining the •lives of •themselves ;ilnd their families. The amount abstracted from labor~s. pockets by the protective tariff· and by all .other methods of getting governmental revenue is simply one of the smaller drains on industry •.. The amount of capital which it is thus prevented from getting will hardly be worth considering until the larger drains are stopped. As. far as taxation gQes, the .great evils involved in it are to be found, ,not in the. material damage don.e.to labor by a loss of earnings, but in the assumption of the right to takemen's property without. their consent, and in· the· use of this ·propetty to •pay. the salaries of the •officials through whom, and the expenses· of~he machine· through which, .lahor is oppressed and ground down. Are you heroic 'enough,Professor Sumller,to adopt'¢his applicati()n of laissez fairer I summon you to it under penalty of conviction of an infidelity to logic which ought to oust you from your posi tionas .a teacher of youth.

If taxation, then (leaving out the.enormous mischief that itdoesa~.an instrument of tyranny), is only one of the minor methods of keeping •. c~pital from .labor, what evil is•. there in the currlency that constitutes. the .major method? Your answer to this question, Professor Sumner 1 will again test your consistency. But] am not so sure what it will be in this case asI wasin the .other. If you answer it as most of yonrfel low-professors would, you will say that the great evil in .the currency. is the. robbery of ·labor through adi-shobes,t .silver dollar. But this isa >greater hugbe~r than the protective LIBERTYINDIVIDUAL 1~ tariff. The silver dollar is just as honest and just as dishonest as the gold dollar, and neither of them is dishonest or a robber of labor except so far as it is a monopoly dollar. Both, how~ ever being monopoly dollars, and all our other dollars being monopoly dollars, labor is being robbed by them all to an extent perfectly appalling. And right here is to be found the real reason why labor cannot get capital. It is because its wages are kept low and its credit rendered next to valueless by a financial system that makes the issue of currency a monopoly and a privilege, the result of which is the maintenance of in terest, rent, and profits at rates ruinous to labor and destruc tive to business. And the only way that labor can ever get capital is by striking down this monopoly and making the issue of money as free as the manufacture of shoes. To demonetize silver or gold will not help labor; what labor' needs is the monetization of all marketable wealth. Or, at least, the opportunity. of such monetization. This can only be secured by absolutely free competition in banking. Again I ask you, Profesor Sumner, does your anxiety lest the individual· be interfered with cover the field of finance? Are you willing that the individual shall be ((let alone" in the exercise of his right to make his own money and offer it in open market to be taken by those who choose? To this test I send. you a second summons under the same penalty that I have already hung over your head in case you fail to respond to the first.

The columns of Liberty are open for your answer. Before you make it, let me urge you to consistency. The battle between free trade and protection is simply one phase of the battle between Anarchism and State Socialism. To be a consistent free trader is to be an Anarchist; to be a con sistent protectionist is to be a State Socialist. You are assail ing that form of State Socialism known as protection. with a vigor equalled by no other man, .but you are rendering your blows of little effect by maintaining, or encouraging the belief that you maintain, those forms of State Socialism known as compulsory taxation and the banking monopoly. You assail Marx and Most mercilessly, but fail to protest against the most dangerous manifestations of their philosophy. Why pursue this confusing course? In reason's name, be one thing or the other! Cease your indiscriminate railing at Soci~lism, for to be consistent you must be Socialist yourself, either of I ND IVJ D U ALL IBE RTY '-7S the Anarchistic or 'the ••governmental sort: either be a State, Socialist and·· denounce liberty everywhere and always, or be an Anarchist and· denounce authority everywhere and always; else you must consent to be taken for what you will appear to be,-an impotent. hybrid.

Herbert Spencer was prone to err in a similar manner, and he was no more immune than Professor Sumner to Mr. Tucker's shafts' of critiCIsm: Liberty welcomes and criticises in the same breath the series of papers by· Herbert Spencer on (CIThe New •Toryism," «The Coming Slavery," «The Sins of Legislators/' etc., now running in the Popular Science Monthly· and the English Con temporary Review.· Th~y are very true, very. important, and very misleading. They are true for the most part in ,what they say, and false and misleading in what they fail tosay. Mr.' Spencer convicts legislators of undeniable and enormous sins in. meddling with and curtailing and destroying the peo pIe's. rights. Their .sins are sins of commission. But Mr. Spencer's sin of ,omissionis quite as grave.•. He is' one of those persons who are making a wholesale onslaught 'on Socialism. as. ,the incarnation. of the doctrine 'of State omnipotence carried to its highest power. And I, am not sure that he is quite honest in this. I begill to be a little suspiciQus of him.

It,seems ... as .• if he· had forgotten the teachings. of •his earlier writings, and had .become a charn.pioIi'<lfthe capitalistic class. It ,will behQticed that in these later articles, amid his multi tudinous illustrations '(of which he is as prodigal. as ever). of the evils of legislation, he. in ev~ry instance cites some law passed, ostensiblyat least, to, protect·labor~ alleviatesuffering, orpromot~ the. people's welfare.Ii:e demonstrates beyond dispute the lamentable failure in th'8 direction. But never on~e does he call attention to the fa~ more deadly and deep seated 'evils· growing· out of the in~umerable laws creating privilege. and sustaining ,monopoly. ·1 You must not· protect the weak against the strong, he seems to say, but freely supply all the weapons needed by the strong to oppress the weak. He is greatly .. shocked that the, rich should be directly taxed to support the poor, but that the poor. should be.indirectly taxed 276 INDIVIDU AL LIBER TY and bled to make the rich richer does not outrage his delicate sensibilities in the least. Poverty is increased by the poor laws, says Mr. Spencer. Granted; but what about the rich laws that caused and still cause the poverty to which the poor laws add? That is by far the more important question; yet Mr. Spencer tries to blink it out of sight.

A very acute criticism of Mr. Spencer's position has been JPade recently before the Manhattan Liberal Club by Stephen Pearl Andrews. He shows that Mr. Spencer is not the radical laissez faire philosopher which he pretends to be; that the only true believers in laissez faire are the Anarchists; that in dividualism must be supplemented by the doctrines of equity and courtesy; and that, while State Socialism is just as dan gerous and tyrannical as Mr. Spencer pictures it, ((there is a higher and nobler form of Socialism which is not only not slavery, but which is our. only means of rescue from all sorts and degrees of slavery." All this is straight to the' mark, telling" thrusts, which Mr. Spencer can never parry. But the English philosopher is doing good, after all. His disciples are men of independent mind, more numerous every day, who accept his fundamental truths and carry them to their logical conclusions. A notable instance is Auberon Her bert, formerly a member of the House of Commons, but now retired from political life. While an enthusiastic adherent of the Spencerian philosophy, he is, fast outstripping his master.

In a recent essay entitled uA Politician in Sight of Haven," written, as the London Spectator says, with an unsurpassable charm of style, Mr. Herbert explodes the majority lie, ridicules physical force as a solution of social problems,strips govern ment of every function except the police, and recognizes even that only as an evil of brief necessity, and in conclusion pro~ poses the adoption of voluntary taxation with a calmness and confidence which must have taken Mr. Spencer's breath away. To be sure, Mr. Herbert is as violent as his master against So cialism, but in his case only because he honestly supposes that compulsory Socialism is the only Socialism, and not at all from any, sympathy with legal monopoly Qr capitalistic privilege in anJ:";term. l"'/ Mr. Willis Hudspeth, in a communication to Liberty, f stated that an Anarchist paper defines an Individualist to \ li",~~, INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 277 .be ~~newho believes in the principle of recognizing the~\ right of every non-aggressive individuaJ. to the full con-I trol of his person and property"; and. he then inquired , how,•if that were correct, does.Anarchism conflict with.\ Socialism.or .. Itl.d~vidualis11l.. Mr. Tucker answered hisJ question in this manner: THE definition offered of Individualism tnlghtnot be accept~d by .• all Individualists, hut it will do very well as a definition of.t\n~rc~ism.... .. ~hen"'my~·corresponaelit·'''speaks'of'Socialisrti I unaetstaiia-l1ith .• to .mean· s.t~~t~".,,§o~i~l~s~ alld.,. ~ati~llalism) a.. n..•.d.......••.•••n... o..•....t..••f.. t•..h.....•.. a....••t.. ,An..• a.. r.. c... hi.S~.I·C .....sOC••. i.al.is.m..·..·:.w... 'n·.... 1C.'.Ii.'~.. -L. ....'.1.."'..[;.. -.e!>1y.•,~.'.•• r"'ep.·~.r.~~.eselit.'.S.'.I shall a. swer hIm on thIS SUppoSItIon. •He. WIshes to know, then, no .State Socialism and Nationalism' would restrict the .

non-aggressive individual in the fuU.control· of his·person and property. In a thousand and one ways. .I will tell him one, an~ leave him to find oUF the thousand. The principal plank int~e platform of State~ocialism and Nationalism. is thecon~ fiscation of .all capital by the. State. i What becomes, in-that case, of.the·.property.ofa~yindividual, whether he be aggressive ornon7aggressive?rw'hat becomes also of private indus try? Evidently it is tolally destroyed. What becomes then of the personal.liberty ofithose non-aggressive individuals. who are .thus prevented from carrying on business.for themselves OJ:' from •. assuming_relations. between •• themselves. as employer and employee if they .. pr.efer, and who are obliged to'.pecoineem ployees.ofthe State ~gainst their. will? State Socialism and Nationalism mean the utter destruction of human liberty and private property •. LIBERTY AND LABOR Theitldlftstrial problem has always been an acute one in GreatBriti~in,. and the politicians .haV'e been struggling with it :fo~ a. great many, years. From time to time the editor of tiberty recorded and co.mmentedupon the ef forts.of d1e more clear-sighted economists in .that coun278 IN D I VI D U ALL I B E R T Y try to solve the problem, hence his welcome of a new book on the subject: ~UBERON HERBERT, whose essay, teA Politician in Sight of Haven," creates such an enthusiasm for Liberty in the minds of all thinking people who read it, has recently published still another. book of similar purport and purpose. He calls it teThe Right and Wrong of Compulsion by the State: A State ment of the Moral Principles of the Party of Individual Lib erty, and the Political Measures Founded Upon ~hem." It consists of a series of papers written for Joseph Cowen's paper, the Newcastle Chronicle, supplemented by a letter to the London Times on the English factory acts. Dedicated to Mr.

Cowen's constituents, ((The Workmen of Tyneside," it appeals with equal force to workmen the world over, and their wel fare and their children~s will depend upon the readiness with which they accept and the bravery with which they adhere to its all-important counsel. The hook is a magificent assault on the majority idea, a searching exposure of the inherent evil of State systems, and a glorious assertion of the inestimable benefits of voluntary action and free competition, reaching its climax in the emphatic declaration that ((this question of power exercised by some men over other men is the greatest of all questions, the one that concerns the very foundations of society," upon the answer to which ((must ultimately depend all ideas of right and wrong.~~ This is a bold and, at first sight, (an astonishing claim; but it is a true one, nevertheless, and the f fact that Mr. Herbert makes it so confidently shows that he I is inspired by the same idea that gave· birth to this journal, \.~c.aalused it to be chriStened Liberty, and determined it to labor ~t and foremost for Anarchy, or the Abolition of the State.

~his is no fitful outburst on Mr. Herbert's part. He evi dently has enlisted for a campaign which will end only with victory. The book in question seems to be the second in a series of ((Anti-Force Papers," which promises to include spe cial papers dealing more elaborately, but in the light of the same· general principle, with the matters of compulsory taxa tion, compulsory education, land ownership, professional mo nopolies, prohibitory liquor laws, legislation against vice, State regulation of love regulations, etc., etc. I know no more in spiring spectacle in England than that of this man of excepINDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 279 tionallyhigh sQciaI position doing •battle almost single-handed with the giant' monster, government, and showiqg, in ita men tal •••• rigor ,and vigor and a 'wealth, ,of ,moral fervor rarely equalled in any cause. Its only parallel at the present day is to b~£oundinthesplendid attitudeo£ Mr. Ruskin, whose earnest eloquence in behalf of economic equity'rivals Mr.. Herbert's in behalf ofindividual liberty.

This thought leads to the other, that each of these men lacks thetr»th that the otherpo!:se!:ses., Mr;.Ru~ki:rt~~~~ v~ry clearly theecon()mic principle which makesalLforms of usttry unrighteous and wages' for work ,the.only ,true method of sus taitling life" but ~enever perceives for a moment that indi vidual human beingsha ve ", sovereign •• rights over themselves. Mr.• Herbert .proves beyond" question •that ••• t~e governme l1tof man by"1l1anis utterly~ithout justification,b1.lt is quite rgno rant of the fact, th~t interest, rent, ,and profits. will ,find 'no place in the perfect Ieconomic order.. ", ,Mr.R~skin's ,error is by far the. more serious'of the.two,because the ;realization of ',Mr. Herbert'sideasiwould inevitablY,result in,t~equity that Mr.. Ruskin sees, whereas this equity can never be achieved for anylength of time without an,,at leastpa,rtial fulfilment of in dividual liberty. Nevertheless it cannot· be gainsaid that Mr.

Herbert's failure to see the' economic results of his ideas con siderably impairs his."power, of ,carrying them home to .men's, Jaearts.Unfortunately, therear.e many people whom the most perfectdedttctive reasoning fails to convince. The beauty of a great !principle and its harmonizitlg influence wherever it touches, I, they are unable, .. to. appreciate., ',They can only. see certain great and-manifest wrongs, and they demand that theseshaU-be righted. Unless they areclearIyshown the con'nectlon. between these wrongs and their real· causes, they are almostsure to associatethem with imaginarycauses.and to try the most •futile and, sometimes disastrous remedies. Now, the one great wrong that these people see' today is the fact. that indl.lstryand, poverty ,commonly go hand in hand' and. are assQciated in the same persons,and the Qnething. that they are determined upon,reg~rdless .of •everything else whatsoever, is ,that 'hereafter those. who do the,. work ,of this world shall enjoy the w.ealth of this world. It is a righteous determina. tion, and in it is to be found, the true significance of the State-Socialistic movement which Mr••Herbert very properly 280 IND IVIDU AL L IBER TY condemns and yet only half understands. To meet it is the :first necessity incumbent upon the friends of Liberty. It is sure that the workers call never permanently secure themselves in the control of their products except through the method of Liberty; but it is almost equally sure that, unless they are shown what Liberty will do for them in this respect, they will try every other method before they try Liberty. The neces sity of showing them this Mr. Herbert, to be sure, dimly sees, but, the light not having dawned on himself, he cannot show it to others. He has to content himself, therefore, with such inadequate, unscientific, and p~rtially charitable proposals as the formation of voluntary associations to furnish work to the unemployed. The working people will never thus be satis fied, an~ they ought not to be.

But Mr. Herbert can satisfy them if he can convince them of all. that is implied in his advocacy of ((complete free trade in all things." To many special phases of this free trade he does call marked attention, but never, I believe, to the most important of all, free trade in banking. If he would only dwell upon the evils of the money-issuing monopoly and emphasize with his great power the ·fact that competition, in this as in other matters, would give us all that is needed of the best possible article at the lowest possible price, thereby stead ily reducing .interest and rent to zero, putting capital within the comfortable rea.ch of all deserving and enterprisingpeo pie, and causing the greatest liberation on record of hereto fore restricted energies, the laborers might then begin to see that here lies their only hope; that Liberty, after all, and not Government, is to be their saviour; that their first duty is to abolish the credit monopoly and let credit organize itself; that then they wilal have to ask nobody for work, but everybody will be asking work of them; and that then, instead of having to take whatever pittance they can get, they will be in a posi tion to exact wages equivalent to their product, under which condition of things the reign of justice will be upon us and labor will have its own. Then Mr. Herbert's work for Liberty will ·no longer be a struggle, but an unmixed pleasure. He will no longer have to breast the current by urging workmen to self-denial; he can successfully appeal to their self-interest, the tide will turn, and he will be borne onward with it to the ends that he desires.

INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY ~8I COMPETITION AND CO..OPERATION «Is competition ot: .cooperation .the truest expression of that mutual trust and fraternal good..will which alone can, replace prese,rtt forms of authority, usagesandcus toms as the social bond of union?" asked W. T. Horn, in a cOlnm~nication to Liberty. Here is the editor's answer; THE supposition that' com.petition means war rests upon old notions and false phrases that have b~en long current, '. but are rapidly passing into the limbo of exploded fallacies.Cornpe titionm.eans war only when it, is it1 some way restricted., either inscopeorintensity,~that is, when it is not perfectly free competition; for then its benefits are won by one class at the expense of anothe.r, instead of. by .all atthe expense of nature's forces. When universal and-unrestricted, compet;ition means the lnostperfectpeace and the tru,est cooperation; for then it becomes simply a test of forces resulting in their most advan tageous utilization. ~As soon as' the demand £()r labor begins to exceed the supply~makingitan easy matter foreveryon.e to get' work at' wages equal to his product, it is for the interest of all (inc.luding.his· ipllT.lediate competitors) that the best man should win; which is another .way.ot saying that, 'where freedom prevails,· competition . and cooperation are identical, For further proof .•. and elaboration. of •this pr()positio~ I refer Mr••, Horn •to Andrew's. «Science· of Society" ,and '. Fowler's pamphlets on uCooper~tion." The realproblem,then, is to make the d~mand for labor greater than the supply, and this can only be done thrOJlgh cOplpetition.in the supply of money O~ use of credit, This is abundantly shown in Greene's\«Mu tual Banking" and the. financial writings •of Proudhon and Spooner. My correspondent seems filled with the sentiment of good..£ellowship, but ignorant of the science tpereof,' and even of the fact that there is such a science. He will find this science expounded in the works already named. If, .after studying and mastering these, hesdll should have any doubts, Liberty will then try to set them at rest.

What the person who goes qut into the work ..a-day world will see there-depends very much upon the power of his mental ~8~ I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Yj VISIon. If that is strong enough to enable him to see that the evils around him are caused by a prohibition of competition in certain directions, it is not unlikely that he will be filled with a ((wish to foster competition." Such, however, willnot be the case with a man who so misapprehends competition as to suppose that monopoly is its soul. Instead of its soul, it is its antithesis. Whatever the reason for which men strive for wealth, as a general thing they get it, not by competition, but by the ap plication of force to the suppression of certain kinds of com petitlon,-in other words, by governmental institution and protection of monopoly. Inasmuch as the monopolist is the victor, it is true that to deny him the spoils of victory is to sheathe the sword of mo nopoly. But you do not thereby sheathe the sword of compe tition (if you insist on calling i~ a sword) ,. because competi tion yields no spoils to the victor, but only wages to the la borer.

When my correspondent says that all monopolies are U te_ sultants ofa competition as free as nature could make it," he makes competition inclusive of the struggle between invasive forces, whereas he ought to know that free competition, in the economic sense of the phrase, implies the suppression of in vasive forces, leaving a free field for the exercise of those that are non-invasive. Ifa man were to declare that, when the benefits of labor cease to be won by one class at the expense of another and when they are shared by all at the expense of nature's forces, labor loses its raisond'etre and dies, his sanity would not long remain unquestioned; but the folly of such an utterance is not lessened an iota by the substitution of the word competi tion for the word labor. As long as the gastric juice contin ues to insist upon its rights, I fancy that neither labor nor competition will lack a raison d'eire, even though the laborer and competitor should find himself under the necessity of wresting his ((spoils" from the bosom of his mother earth in stead of from the pocket of his brother man.

In Mrs. Glass's recipe for cooking a hare, the first thing was to catch the hare. So in Mr. Horn's recipe for the solution of economic forms in ethical concepts,· the first thing is to get the concepts. Now, the concepts of mutual confidence I NO IV IDU A LL I BERT Y 2.83 and good-fellowship are not to be 'obtained ,by '.preaching, otherwise the church militant would long ago have ~ecome the church triumphant; ,or by force,-otherwise progress wgu1d have gone hand in hand with authority instead of with liberty; but only by unrestricted freedom,-that is, by compe tition,' the necessary condition. of confidence, fellowship, and cooperation, which. can.never ,come as long as monopoly, uthe economic expres~ion of hostility and mastership,''-continuesto exi~t. . r~>. .. LIBEltry ANDum BOYCOTT {,LO;NDON 1us does not see clearly in the matter of boycotting. {" UEvery man," is says, tthasa perfect right to refuse to hold ~ intercourse' with any other man or class from whom he rchoo$es to keep aloof. But where doeslrbertycome in when i several persons conspire together to put pressure upon another to induce or (;oerce him (by threats expressed or implied) to refrain also from intercourse with the boycotted man? It is 'not that the boycotted man has grounds of legal complaint against those' who voluntarily put him in coventry. His comI plaint is against those who compel (under whatsoever sanc \ tion) third persons to do likewise. Surely· the' distinction is \~peci:fic."'· ••Specinc, ,yes" but .not ,'r,ational.,.',.Theline of teal distinction does not run in .the direction which Jus tries to give it. Its course does not lie between.the second person and a third pe~son, but between the threats of invasion and, the threats of ,.ostracism by which 'either the second or a third person is coerced or ind~ced. '.. All boycotting, no matter ,0( what person, consists either in the utterance of a threat o~ in its execution. A man has.aright to threaten what he has ai right. to execute. The boundary-line of 'justifiable boycotting is. fixed by the nature of the threat. used.. , B. and.G~",.!a~.?re~st: ::f~~~4;1at\~~f~V~r~~~~~~~i:~;1.

are~entJ:ded'to''Say'to··'·A':J·,$,·t,lf')fyutrao not dIscharge the non-E unroU'fil'en·in'youremp1'oy,-we·will quit buying shoes of you.'t Sifnil~r,IY they are entitled to'luitbuying;<:lothes of Dj .. tailo4, Therefore they',are entitled to say to D:(Clfyou do notcooplo '\, 284 I N D I V I D U ALL I B E R T Y erate with us in endeavoring to induce A to discharge his non union employees,-that is, if you do p.ot quit buying shoes of him,-we will quit buying clothes of you." But Band C are not entitled to burn A's shop or D's shop. Hence they are not entitled 'to say to A that they will burn his shop unless he discharges his non-union employees, or to D that they will burn his shop unless he withdraws his patronage from A. Is it not clear that the rightful attitude of Band C depends wholly upon the question whether or not the attitude is in vasive in itself, and not at all upon the question whether the ,object of it is A or D?

" In reply, Jus, being convinced by the argument, cheer,{ fully acknowledged its error, but asserted that the prin ciple di~ not apply when two or more persons conspired to conduct a boycott, saying, ((That which may not be il legal or' even wrong in one person becomes both illegal and morally wrong when in a crowd of persons." Mr. rucker then proceeded to demolish that contention: f Jus still thinks, however, that something may be said on the other side, and declares.·that there are some things that one person may rightfully. do which become illegal and immoral when done by a crowd. I should like to have Jus give an in stance.· There are some invasive acts or threats which can not be executed by individuals, but require crowds-or con spiracies, if you will-for their acccomplishment. But the guilt still arises from the invasive character of the act, and not from the fact of conspiracy. No individual has a right t~ do any act which. is invasive, but any number of indi'V,id~-tlals may rightfully ((conspire" to commit any. act which\is .,·,:...•.'.no.n-l.·nv.,..a.,s,.i.V,.e, ,. .·.JUS ack.,n.. a".w.I.edges, the force of L.ib...e:U'Y~sa.rg\-.men~.. _fh~t A may as pr~B~j;1¥-b~c..,as"~",,..Fttrther con\ siderati~n·;"r~~!~~!:~:,:!!tt£Q!llPeL4.t~'toacknO'Wl~that A. an~\ i~,~comblfI~!!,.,~~~l",,~.~",.E!8.P~~~!I"..,~~l~,~:::..~,,~~~,1!!,~.Y.~,A.,Jl1Qn~. ,QLW ,aWRei'"

if. In these days of boycott trials a great deal of nQn~~nse· is ~;being talked and written regarding ((blackmail." This is a INDIVIDUAL LIBERl'Y 2.85 ijuestion which the' prin.ciple of Liberty settles' at once. It {may be well to state the verdict boldly and baldly. Here it fitt Any individual mav ,nlace any condition hecfiooses·~~.pro v4kd"tne·nconartl(r~>M~'b:'·~DaTts]rrmvasive--u-on·W"th;~ dOlIl, btt~~~~t~~¥~~~rr~iri~~\Vhi~~TI~~tiion incumbent u~n any 01. me co~tracting partles: From whictrtr follows fnat a1ttridf-rid~~;;;~T;rghttuU~;!¢itoJ.;t" xnoney. :from.another by ~Cthr~~iPL-him.. with certain co~ces, ££~ea diose c~nse~:e~e~.,,~::. of such, a natu;c ~11i'F1ie can ~auSe "them ') .wlthout .lnrrl!iglii~"upnrr-anybodys tlg~ .,iggL,.UtWJ.talC: ~~~~jher mean Bus~~ttlt ther.e.are cjrcul1lstal1ce~ , under Whlch the· most high-min, e of men might resort to. i \:.t.l,a,·.•..t;~.~.l.}d..•. ~,.~~I.i~~.:.d.. ~he. =.f~.. ~::~;.~~l1~~~•\hreatened IS InvaSIve an~efore wron " ul.Therefore t ' ~1S1nrrelX wlro""hm"'tal<en riioney-ror !ifiinj,a· .OY~Ottl.

~~~hatever may e the'corrJ gAja\\7':~J):fl1iGiat~'~.Qa~ffiiFt"""'---·, QOne!.'~e--is ~~e natural.law .!uh;tt governs }!,_ .. .~'" .\ The courts. ate at last beginning to take rational views on the question of peaceable picketing and peaceable boycot,ting. Sevetal r~£reshing'decisions have. been' rendered' within. a short time in which the principle is recognized that what one man may •legitimately •do·. several.men may. do ,in ·concert ..•But eyen. the most ~nde,pendent and intelligent of •the judges still stultify themselves by.attempting baseless distinctions between self..regarding boycotts and purely sympatheticb()ycotts.' A, they say, may boycott B, if he has an.y grievance against •him, hut he may not askC. to boycottB and threaten to boycott h.imin turn in the event of .refusal.When they undertake to defend this position, they failmisera.b1y,·· of course,andthe t,ruthis that they $hrink from the clear logic of the principle which they lay down at the outset .••..But let us. not expect too much ofthe 111 at once. nIt is. the first step that is diffi cult." ~aving accepted a.. sound principle, its corollaries will force themselves on them.

.286 IN D I VI D U ALL I BERTY ANARCHISM AND COPYRIGHT Not alone on the land question did Mr. Tucker find himself in disagreement with Henry George. In his news paper, the Standard of June 23, 1888, the latter discussed with a correspondent the question of property in ideas. The editor of Liberty thus took exception to his argu ments: MR. GEORGE, taking his stand upon the principle that pro ductive labor is the true basis of the right of property, ar ,gues through three columns, with all the· consummate ability for which credit should be given -him, to the triumphant vin ,dication of the position that there can rightfully be no such thing as, the exclusive ownership of an idea. No man, he says, U can justly claim ownership in natural laws, nor in any of the relations which maybe perceived by the human mind, nor in any of the potentialities which na ture holds for it.... Ownership comes from production. It cannot come from discovery. Discovery can give no right of ownership .•••No man can discover anything which, so to speak, was not put there to be discovered, and which some one else might noe in time have discovered. If he finds it, it was not lost. It, or its potentiality, existed before he came.

It was there i to be found. • .. In the production of any material thing-a machine, for instance-there are two sep arableparts,-the abstract idea of principle, which may be usually expressed by drawing, by writing, or by word of mouth; and the concrete form of the particular machine itself, which is produced by bringing together in certain relations certain quantities and qualities of matter, such as wood, steel, brass, brick, rubber, cloth, etc. There are two modes in which labor go'es to the making of the machine,-the one in ascer taining the principle on which such machines can be made to work; the other in obtaining from their natural reservoirs :and bringing together and fashioning into shape the' quanti ties and qualities of matter which in their combination consti tute the concrete machine. In the first mode labor is expended in discovery. In the second mode it is expended in producINDIVIDU ALLIBERTY 281 tiona The work of. discovery may be done once for all, as in the case, of' the discovery in prehistoric ,time of the principle OJ: idea of the wheelbarrow. But the work of production is required afresh in the"case of each particular thing. , No mat terhowmany thousand ,millions. of wheelbarrQws have been produced, it requires fresh labor of prod;uctionto make an other one.•••'The ~aturalreward of labor expended in dis covery· is in 'the use that can be made of the discovery with.

out in.t~r£erencewith the right of ~n.y ,one ,else to use it., ,But i to this natural reward our patent laws endeavor to add an arti ficial reward. Although the effect of giving to the discoverers of useful devices,or processes,an absolute right ,to .their ,exclu sive use would be to burden all industry with most grievous monopolies, and to greatly retard, if not put a stop to, further inventions, yet the theory of our :patent laws is that we cain stimulate discoveries by giving a modified right of, ownership / in ,their use fora term ,of years. In this. we, seek by special laws to give a special reward to labor expended in discovery, which does hot belong to it of natural rig~t, and is of the na ture of a bounty. But as for labor expen4edin the second of thesemodes,-inthe production of the machine by the •• bring ing together in certain r,elations ,of ,certain, quantities and qualities of matter,-we need 110 special laws to, reward that.

Absolute ownership attaches to the results of. such labor, not by ,special,laW"'.,butby common law. ,And if ••"a11 human laws were, abolished, men would still hold that, whether it were a .wheelharrow or a '. phonograph, the, conc'rete thing belonged to the man,wpo ,produced it. And this, not for a term of years, but jin perpetuity. It would pass at his death to his heirs or to ,those to whom he d~vised it." The. whole of the preceding paragraph is" quoted, from Mr. George's article. I regard it as conclusive,' unanswerable. It proceeds, it will be noticed, entirely by the method of ergo. But it is time for t;he philosopher to disappear. He has done his part of the work, which· was the demolition of patents. Now it is the prestidigitator's turn. It remains for him to jus tify copyright,-that is, property, not in the ideas set forth ! ,i.: in a book, but in the manner of expressing them. So juggl~r " George steps upon the scene. Presto/he exclaims: (COver and above.any clabor.of discovery' expended in .thinking out ", ,what to say, is th~ clabor of production' expended on how to ~ 288 INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY say it." Observe how cunningly it is taken for granted here that the task of giving literary expression to an idea is labor of production rather than labor of discovery. But is it so?

Right here comes in the juggler's trick; we will subject it to the philosopher's test. The latter has already been quoted: tryhe work of discovery may be done once for all. •••but the work of production is required afresh in the case of each par ticular thing." Can anything be plainer than that he who does the work of combining words for the expression of an idea saves just that amount of labor to all who thereafter choose to, use the same words in the same order to express the same idea, and that this work, not being required afresh in each particular case, is not work of production, and that, not being work of production,.it gives no right of property? In quoting Mr. George above I did not have to expend any labor on uhow to ~ay" what he had already said. He had saved me that trouble. I simply had to write and print the words on fresh sheets of paper. These sheets of paper belong to me, just as the sheets on which he wrote and printed belong to him. But the particular combination of words belongs to neither of us.

He discovered it, it is true, but that fact gives him no right to it. Why not? Because, to use his own phrases, this combi nation of words uexisted potentially before he came"; ttit was there to be found"; and if he had not found it, some one else would or might have done so. The work of copying or printing books is analogous to the production of wheelbar rows, but the original work of the author, whether in think ing or composing, is analogous to the invention of the wheel barrow; and the same argument that demolishes the right of the inventor demolishes the right of the author. The method of expressing an idea is itself an idea, and therefore not appro priable. THE END BIBLIOGRAPHY Outo£ a. great number of hooks that could be cited as showing a tendency of mpdern thought toward the ideals of· Individualist Anarchism, the following are thos~ •that bear' most clirectly on tpe. subject, anJ,. k some instances :may be considered as sour'ce books. Where they are •avail..

able, '. their reading in connection with the present volume will serve to enlighten the student of individual liberty. Proudhon was the greatest figure of the. middle period of the nineteenth century.· He' was .. the first thinker .to .•.•• £ully apply the. principle of liberty directly. to all economic. co,nd~tions. .His ~'General Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century" (Freedom Press, 127 OS$ulston Street, Lond6n, N. W. 1, England) describes the changes impending and the direction they must take. He predicted the growing power of the financial capitalist, ahdhistoryhas abundantly borne.him out. His influence in France has lasted to this day. "What IsProperty?"-one of his greatest works and thenrst translated into English--also may be had' from ,tile Freedom Press. , John Stuart Mill was one of the first to see c1earlythe real meaning of Uberty. His essay, "On Liberty," although first published over sixty>-:ftve years ago, is' so fundamental in its substance that it is qui~eapplicable t() present conditions. Moreover, he discussed denials of liberty in the' United States as well 'as in England. For a long time out of print, ·this,·essay is i fortunately now' to be had in the Big Blue Book series of the Haldeman Julius. Company, Girard, Kansas.

William B. Greene,' working independently in America, reached the same conclusions as. Proudhon in France. In his jpamphlet on UMutualBanking" (published by Henl'Y Gohen~426 California Building, Los Angeles, Cal ifornia) he attacks, first, the state banks of his day. The intricate proc esses of exchange and the part played by money and' crec!it.are described with such simplicity. and yet so correctly that his arguments have not suffered by the lapse of, time and are as fully pertinent today as they were when writ;ten. Be cle~rly points· the way to the abolition of interest. A brief· exposition of some. of Proudhon's ideas, brought down to date and linked up with present conditions, is embodied in ctThe Economics of Liberty," by John Beyerly Robinson (supplied by Freedom Pres~, 127 Ossulston Street, London, N. W. 1). With the exception of some' digres sions into irrelevancies,iit is thought-provoking a.nd valuable.

Individualist. Anarchism, especially as expounded by Tucker, is funda mentally egoistie, which makes. Max Stirner's masterpiece, ctThe Ego a.nd His Own" ,(dso to be: had from Freedol1l Press), a book that should be read in connection with any. e~position of individual liberty, since it con tains tQ.eessence of the egoistic philo~ophy. Ahot!her book on the same subjec1:,.more, moder.. and less voluminous, but un~ortunately not now to 289 BIBLIOGRAPHY be had except in a few public libraries, is James L. Walker's uThe Philos ophy of Egoism." Walker, under the pen name of T ak Kak, was a frequent editorial contributor to Liberty. Henry D. Thoreau, though not properly labeled an anarchist, was cer tainly a free spirit, and his essay,· UOn the Duty of Civil Disobedience," will be found to contain many inspiring thoughts for the person who is seeking to understand .individual liberty. His uWalden," to a certain extent, may be similarly described.

Josiah Warren's ttTrue Civilization" and Stephen Pearl Andrews' develop ment of the· same theme in ttThe Science of Society»' would, were both books not out of print, provide profitable reading for those interested in the ideas set forth in this volume. ttlnsteadof a Book" was dedicated to Warren, and Tucker frequently referred to him as his umaster." Lysander Spooner was one of the most prolific of writers on the subject of liberty and its application to the everyday problems of life, but he too suffers from being wholly out of print. One of his greatest works, ttTrial by Jury," was edited and abridged by Victor Yarros and published under the title of ttFree Political Institutions," but this too can no longer be had from booksellers. If it can be borrowed or found on second-hand book counters, it should be studied. ttJosiah Warren," by William Bailie (Small, Maynard Be Company, Boston), is a biography which deals sympathetically and understandingly with Warren's ideas, and, aside from Tucker's writings, is the best exposi tion of those ideas ·now in print.

Francis D. Tandy's ttVoluntary Socialism" (alas! also out of print) is designed to show how individual liberty can be applied to conditions as they exist today. It is valuable. On the financial question Hugo Bilgram's ttThe Cause of Business De pressions" (Lippincott, Philadelphia) is of importance, especially as ex ploding the fallacy of the volume theory of money and as showing that interest has no reason for being. As giving a detailed history of the evolution of industry and banking in Great Britain, Charles P. Isaacs' ttthe Menace of the Money Powee' (Jonathan Cape, 11 Gower Street, London) is excellent. It shows how Scotland formerly prospered under a comparatively free system of banking.

INDEX B Bak()unine, M.-14. Ballot,! not test •of truth--.,.;62; object ot, 62. Bank of the People-133, 134. Banking, cost of-1I2. Basis of currency-131. Bast~aJ: F., illustration of interestBilgram, Hugo-72, 97, 99. Borrowing on a. free.· lllarket-:-l08. Boycott .and blackmail-28S; and its limit, .284; and liberty, 283; see also, Force. Building$, occupancy of-228. Butler, B. F.-81. Byingtotl, S. T.--122, 126, 186,215. C Cancellation of mutual bank notes-141-l44. Capital, ,abundance of, effect on ,i inteJj'est - 102-107;conftscation of, 277; how accumulated, 93 j interest. not paid for the use of, ~ 02-107 j nature of, 106; not 29 1 A Adam Smith~s "Wealth of Nations" -3~ 4.Aggression-,see •Compulsory coopera tion~ Government, Invasion, State.Anarchism cannot be harmonized with the Single Tax~ 189; defi nition of, 7; is consistent Mati che.sterism~ •64 j' •the opposite. of Archism, 199;. see also Authot ity, Communism, Democracy, Government, State, Socialism.

Anarchists are Jeffersonians - 13; not Communists, 15; mission of the, 21;. on land, 182, 192. Anarchy, defined-33; has construc tive 'Side, 32; would beestabJished by eVOlution, 56. .' Andrews, Stephen Pear1-275: on Pomeroy, •169 j on. Spencer, 276. Artificial monopolies should be· abol ished-205. 'Associations for detence - 25; see also Defensive associations, Pro tection, State, Voluntary· asso ciations. Autb,ority, .contrasted with free con tract-27-30; representing State Socialism, 3; see also Despotism, Government, .State, Tyranny. lent by bankers, 167; payment for t.he u~e of, 111; and prod uct tdentlcgtl". 9 ;a~d . product,State Soclahsm. dlsttnguishes ~ ; scarcity of does not affect 1nierest~ g1; and s tdll. dHfer enc~ between, 161; will. become avatlable. 262.. Chi1qren, rearing of, under AnarchIsm...:-14. Circulation of money illustrated .......,105. • .' Civic Federation meeting in Chi cage>---:248.

Communists not Anarchists - 15' Ch!c!1go, n91'.Anarchists, ·32. ,. CompetItion, the. antithesis of mon opo~Y-8;· and cooperation, 281; dental of, created. trusts 249' fatal .to usury, 187; the levelle; of I?rlces, 8 ja method of coop eration" 248 jnow one-sided. 8' of superior .sites .of land,224; see. ~lso CooperatIon, Free com petitIon, Free trade, Freedom Lais.sez fair-e. ' CompulSIon, every. form. of tried 95. Confiscation of capital aggression 2?7 ;0£ rent lead,s to. Commu·' ntsm, 235. Contr~ct or organism - 47-48; the 191~t to break, 57; why men, Convertibility· into gold of .mutual bank notes-l2S. Cooperation and competition -282' a form of c~petition, 248;·· s~ als.~ C<?mpetttxon, .Compulsory cooperatIOn. .. . Copyright-286;. see also· Patents Corporate privileges granted .by State--250. Costof banking-1l5; the just price --,-263; of mutual banking, by whom borne, 98. Credit s~rengthened by voluntary taxatlon~51; stronger· ina vol..

untary "State" 52 Credit-money, atte~pts ~t, suppressed by law - 153; see. at-so Free money, Mutual. banks Criminals made by the· State--26' punishme~t of not opposed, 58: Currency, baSI'S of-131; monopoly, Ve0rge on,. 162; non·interest blearing, . 175; see also Free money, Gold.

INDEX D Defence, a commodity-48; differs from government, 22. Defensive associations - 25; cannot become in vasive, 53; like churches, 48; protect all. in vaded persons, 48. Despotism, pleadings of-67; see also Government, State, Tyranny. Discovery gives no right to owner ship-286. Distribution of rent, of skill-211. Donisthorpe, W.-84. E Economic interest-what is it? 110. Economic rent, Anarchists do not deny the existence of-187; con fiscation of, tyrannical, 189; ex istence of, admitted, 217; is plunder, 209. "Einzige und sein Eigenthum," by Caspar Schmidt-24. Eminent domain-222. Equity regarding product and wage -157. Exchange, tool of-124. F Finance-see Banking, Capital, Cur rency, Exchange, Gold, Money, Standard of value. Force, . ballot representative of-81; see also Passive resistance, Revolution. Free banking cardinal doctrine of Anarchism - 127; the remedy, 10; see also Mutual banks.

Free competition, power of-l72. Freedom, effects· of, on economic rent - 188; incompatible with State Socialism, 63. Free labor compared to slave-260. Free land, no solution alone-I93. Free Life, The-213. Free market, borrowing in-I08. Free money and the cost principle176; effect of, on rent, 96; most important reform, 94, 95; see also Free banks, Mutual banks. Free trade, absolute, is Anarchy 9; in all things, 9; in banking, 158, 280. Freedom, difficulties of, imaginary 52; 'Society dependent on,63. G George, Henry-161, 181, 193, 198, 235, 237, 286. Gold, artificial market for-ISS, 156; value of, 152; value of, reducea by mutual banking, 154. Government, definition of-32; grad ual abolition of, desirable, 202; postal service dear, 267; pro hibited by itself, 69; Proudhon on, 28-30. Greenbackers on freecurrency-169; ignorant of their own theory, 173; position of, defined, 176. Greene, Wm. B.-I02, 134, 141; his views expounded, 152, 153.

H Harris, W. T., on liberty-62. Herbert, Auberon-213, 276; on "compulsion, 278. Homestead strike-257. I Ideas, property in-253. Increment, see Unearned increment. Individual, relation of the State tc20; relation of, to the State, 23; sovereignty of, 13. ~ Industrial combinations, Anarchism's attitude toward-257. Ingalls, J.' K.-I00, 109. "Instead of a Book," compiled from Liberty-v, vii. Interest abolished by mutual bank ing-;113; low, how caused,180; on money and other capital, 167; reduced by competition, 10; is unjust, 4; viability of, 102 107; see also Discount, Profits, Usury. Invariable monetary unit-128. Invasion, Anarchists enemies of-58' border line, 39; of. government: 22; tariff an, 68; see also Gov ernment, State,. Tyranny. "Involuntary Idleness/' a great book-97. IOU. necessity for-140. K Kitson, A., 127. Kropotkine, P.-262; not an Anarch ist, 15. L Laissez Faire, absolute-9.

Law of competition, credit brought under-88. Labor, cost of-186; entitled to free market, 254; how deprived of earnings, 60; the measure of price,S; necessity of tools for, 194; its product is its wage, 4; slave, compared to free, 260; and time, 164; unpaid, the So cialist complaint, 263; does not receive surplus wealth, 87. Laborer, hi'S lack of cap.ital-272; will not give up. society, 194. Land, basis for currency-94; free ing of, 189; holders of, ought not to be disturbed, 205; occu pancy and use of, 11, 192, ~15 235; occupying, ownership, 200; vacant, must be made free, 221. Land League Anarchistic-245. LassaIIe, F., on passive resistance 78. Lesigne, Ernest on the two Social isms-15-17.

INDEX "Letters to British. Wotk;men"-90. :Levy, J. H., on li~ert~~43. ... Liberly, an: Anarchist Jourllal-111 .. Liberty and the Ooycott-283; cap1talists deny, 259; the .enemies (),f, ,30; .the greater blessmg, 8.5; the lesser evil, 85; more deSir able than equality, 207; purpose of, 30, 31; what it will do, 190. M Machines, invention and manufacture o,f-286. :M:Ail§,.'1)tiva.te ea.rryinll ,of-265.Market, artificial, for gold-ISS, 156. Marx Karl-4; compared to Praudhon~ 4-10.Matured notes a.t mutual bank-'-146. Measure of'value and standard com pared'-117. Methods-see Boycott, For<:e, Pas sive resistance,' RevolutIOn, Se.. cession. " . Monetary unit. invar1abl~128. Money, circulation of l.- 175; mon ~poly of, 10; monopoly creates trusts 252; must be secur,ed. 170; ;ee also Capital. Cur ency. Free money, Gold, In erest, Standard of value. Monopolies, the' two greares -88; the four great, 9.

Monopoly , Anarchists refuse t sus tain'-:'210; cause of povert, 27; of currency,' Geori;e on, 162; effects of, 59. . tJMor~i4~o code of, utJder Atar~hY " .Most, ,John-263; not· an. An ch1st, Mutii~r~r~~;\;:l;f~~a~ i1:11 banks. .! Mutual .money" immediate rijdemp tion. not necessary~135-1f; security 'Of, 125. . ' Mutualism'-'see Cooperation. i I N Newspapers, unearned increment in Non~;;~~rs. injury to-223. Non-resi'stance-36, 41; see also Passive resistance. ' ... No-rent ·a€;itation in Ireland-247; movement in Ireland, 74. o Occupancy doctrine applied to mines -'-216~ ·217; of land must be personal, 227. Occupants of part of the land--229', 230. Occupying ownership of land-200. Ownership defined-203; and pos session, difference between. 73. P Par" mutual bank notes circulate at -126. Passiveresi'stance-41-42, 76, 81; of Irish Land League, 245 ; most potent weapon, 246; in Russia, 79; see also Non·resist ance.

Patents, a monopoly-12. Possession of land-231; and owner .. ship, difference between, 7~. Post, L. F.--230. Postal·" service, low wages, hardwork..,-270. Poverty, cause ot~(); result: o~ monopoly, 27. Power adds to itself-7; of govern ment to fix value, 147-149. Privilege, cause of usury-5; see also Monopoly, State. Privileges of capitalists---260, '261; of capitalists, and capital, State Socialism distinguishes, 7; cor.. porate, granted by' State, 25Q. Production. ownership comes fr'Om-286, 287; two moc:Jes·of expend ini' labor in,· 287. Profit affected,by interest---ll;' mon opolistic, 'creates trusts. 251; is unjust, 4. . . ' Property., chance element in-99; in ideas, 254; labor should be put in possession, 2; labor true basis of, 286 ; in literary·· ex pression, 287; perfection of, 74; under Atlarchism, 213-215; see :-a I 5,0 Occupancy, Ownership, Pos~ssion, Wealth. Protection secured by cooperation 13;· St,atenqt •. necessary to,. 60.

Protective· Tari:ffan evil-273. Proudhon, Pierre J., on Anarchism- , 8; economics of, -4; on govern ment, 25, 28-30 ; phrase, "Prop erty .is ,impossible, "211,; "Rev olut~on .of the :N'ineteenth Cen tury." !27;, on the standard of value, .PO; uses . words in dif ferent senses, 183. Punishment, Anarchy and-37; of invaders, 58, 65. R Ratio of security in mutual banks -123, 124. Redemption, immediate,of money not necessary~135-137;' in spe de of notes, 145. Rent affected by ,interest~l1; anni hilation of, 182;. collection. of, by force, 208; effect of compe tition on, 212; pooling of, 204; the price of monopoly, .165; and protection, 201; Ricardo's the ory true, 198; is unjust. 4; use of the word, 185; 'See also Economic rent, Land, Single Tax, Unearned increment.

INDEX Rent collector, State as-225. Revolution, blooQ.y, desire of ty rants-78; when time is ripe for, 55; see also Force, Passive resistance. Reward of capital-179; of labor ttnder free competition, 184. Right, different uses of the word 73-74; to keep unearned incre ment, 186; to land, 206; might is, 23; might the only, 191 ; social expediency the only, 73. Robbery, treated by Anarchists-42. Robinson, J. B.-36, 215. Ruskin, John - 90; compared to Herbert, 279. S Sale, an exchange of labor-184. Secession, to deny right of, is slavery ....:-55. Security necessary for mutual money -125; ratio of, in mutual banks, 123, 124. Single Tax, cannot be harmonized with Anarchism-189; frees only poorest land, 220; is robbery, 242. Socialism, functions of-3; ignorance concerning, 2; would regulate everything-, 7. Society an aggregation of individ uals-SO; Anarchists believe in, 65; laborer's desire for, 194.

Sovereignty of the individual-13. Specie redemption ultimate neces sity-143; standard of value, 132. Spencer, Herbert-27; on aggres sion, 40; errors of, 275. Standard of value necessary-119 121; need not he coined, 123. Stanford, Leland, land bank--171. State, abolition of,. and rent-199; can be restrained, 53; defini tion of, 21, 22; different from society, 50; different from vol untary association, 53·58; makes trusts possible, 249; must be made unnecessary, 31; nature of, 47-52; necessity of abolishing, 13 ; not concrete organization, 50; not founded on contract, 48; originated in aggression, 21, 22; power to~ should be delegated, 226; its relation to individual 20; as rent collec tor, 225; see also Authority, Defensive associations, Govern ment. State Socialism-see Socialism. Stirner, Max-24. Strikes in Russia-79-80; at Home stead, 257. T Tariff as an advanta~e-12; mon opoly, 11.

Taxation, resistance to--53-58; is robbery, 232; root of monopoly, 13. Taxes, collection of, an aggression -24. Time, element of, as affecting value -163. Trusts, result from denial of competition-249. ' Tucker, Benj. R., life and work of -iii·viii. U Unearned increment-18S' in other things besides land, 2l9. Usury dependent on monopoly-27; three forms of, 88; see also Dis count, Interest, Profits, Rent. v Value, artificial, of gold-lS9; of gold reduced by mutual hank ing, 154; power of government to fix, 148; standard of, need not be coined, 123; standard of, necessary, 119-121; variation in standard of, 118. Voltaire-13. Voluntary associations, enforce their regulations-54; protecting users of land, 214; and State, differ ence between, 53, 58; see also Defensi ve associations, Protec tion, Punishment. Voluntary taxation means dissolution of State, 31. W Wage only just income-4; of labor is its product, 4.

Wag~s defined-157; determined by mterest, 180; should equal prod uct, 157; and tariff, 67; see also Labor, Product, Reward. Warren, Josiah, on Anarchism-8 ; economics of, 4. W ealth, ~et~od of obtaining-87 ; monetizatIOn of, needed, 274; two ways of distributing, 190. "Wealth of Nations," Adam Smith -3. W ells, Fargo & Co. carrying mail 266. Westrup, A. B.-118. Wright, A. W.-135.

About this edition

This EPUB was produced automatically from the PDF named below. The text is the publisher's; the layout was reflowed for screen reading, so page breaks, line breaks and hyphenation differ from the original.

Title: Individual Liberty

Author: Benjamin R. Tucker

First published: 1926

Publisher: New York, Vanguard Press

Source file: Individual Liberty.pdf

Source page: https://freecapitalists.org/books/individual-liberty/

Converted: 2026-08-09 by The Liberty Archive (freecapitalists.org), converter v6

Table of Contents

- Title Page
- Publisher's Note
- Editor's Foreword
- Contents

- Sociology

- II. The Individual, Society, and the State

- Liberty's Declaration of Purpose
- Anarchism and the State
- Resistance to Government
- Liberty and Organization
- Liberty and Taxation
- Anarchism and Crime
- Liberty and Politics
- Liberty and Prohibition
- Anarchism and Capital Punishment
- Liberty and Property
- Anarchism and Force

- Methods

- The Futility of the Ballot

- Voluntary Co-operation

- Economics

- Free Money First
- Free Banking
- The Abolition of Interest
- Necessity For a Standard of Value
- Government and Value
- Henry George and Interest
- Various Money Schemes

- II. Land and Rent

- Methods
- Rent
- Economic Rent
- Property Under Anarchism
- Occupancy and Use Versus the Single Tax
- George and the Single Tax

- III. Trade And Industry

- Strikes and Force
- Labor and Its Pay
- Liberty or Authority
- Liberty and Labor
- Liberty and the Boycott

- Bibliography
- Index
- About this edition