===== PAGE 1 ===== THE [eClld JUNE 1960 IDEAS ON LIBERTY World Government — A Reactionary Disorder. . . . . . Darryl W. Johnson, Jr. 3 We Can't Afford It! . . . . . . . . J Edward Day 9 Tax Consciousness . . . . . . . . H.P B. Jenkins 13 Featherbedding — A Way of Life . . . Leonard E. Read 14 Free Will: The Foundation of the Free World . . . . . . . . Harold E. Schlichting, Jr. 17 Why | Returned to My Job . . . . . W.L Hunter 24 Feet of Clay . . . . . . . . . . William Henry Chamberlin 28 Communist Capitalism . . . . . . . Edward J. Webster 35 The Centuries of Communism . . . . George Winder 39 Suburban Renewal . . . . . . . . Jack Mabley 52 On the Scientific Methods and Truth . . Daniel K. Stewart 53 lament for a Poet . . . . . . . . John Chamberlain 61 The Thinker . . . . . . . . . . Berton Braley 65 THE FOUNDATION FOR ECONOMIC EDUCATION, INC. Irvington-on-Hudson, New York ===== PAGE 2 ===== Olsen grow aeesmnt with Coast Federal Savings and Loan Association of LOS ANGELES Join the thousands of others from all 50 states and many foreign countries who hold individual, joint, trust or corporation savings accounts and get the following outstanding'advantages for your invested savings. HIGHEST EARNINGS —Effective January 1, 1960, we are paying at the rate of 42% per annum. Accounts opened or added to by the 10th of any month earn from the Ist of that month. ASSETS OF OVER $400,000,000.00, with over $90,000,000.00 in cash and government bonds and Reserves of over $30,500,000.00 as of December 31, 1959. AVAILABILITY OF FUNDS — Coast Federal has always paid every withdrawal immediately on request. SAVE-BY-MAIL — Airmail postage paid both ways on all transactions. SECURITY of principal assured through progressive, conservative manage- ment and the additional protection of $10,000.00 insurance on each account. 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Name Address City Zone State ===== PAGE 3 ===== - JUST HOW FAR SHOULD GOVERNMENT GO i IN COMPETING WITH ITS OWN CITIZENS? : RAR MW “In all that the people can individually do as well for themselves, government ought not to interfere.””— ABRAHAM LINCOLN Today the government runs some 19,000 America’s rapidly growing need for commercial and industrial enterprises electricity can be amply met by the in its civilian branches alone! more than 300 independent electric companies—and without using a penny Many thoughtful people are. sur- of federal taxes. prised to learn that the U. S. govern- This needless federal “public power” ment actively competes with thousands #spending will be stopped when enough of independent businesses. citizens realize what is happening (8 “Why?” they ask. It’s a good question. ~~ out of 10 don’t yet realize they are being taxed for this purpose). Will you An outworn legacy of war help spread the facts? Check the cou- The idea of government-in-business pon for the materials you can use. got its big boost back in World War I. They'll be sent promptly, at no cost. However, it has been kept rolling, and America’s Independent lerated, in ti f peace. eae . SvEN 2oceleraied, In wes of pou Electric Light and Power Companies Today no one can estimate the total cost, in taxes, of government-in-busi- atte eee tet =| ness. But figures are available for one | POWER COMPANIES of government’s largest enterprises— | Room 1115-0 the federal electric power “business.” | 1271 Ave. of the Americas, New York 20, N.Y. . “ I Please send me the new booklets | . To date, this federal so-called “pub- checked below, without charge: i lic power” has cost the taxpayers over | “What Do Federal Pi Vent Cost $5,000,000,000. And the pressure | | Your Community 2" ures Los groups that promote it are pushing for IO “The Story Behind the Electric Power | another $10,000,000,000—much of it | Issue erican Worker's Stake in th likely to come from taxpayers. 0 Electric Power Picture nme . . - “How Federal! Government Electricity More federal power spending DL) fects the musineseman ! . i Names of the companies that sponsor | The irony of it is, an outlay like . Name this — or any outlay at all to put the ( Please print) government farther into the electric | Address 1 power business—is totally unnecessary. ! stat ; ate H City Zone — — —— ——————— —— —————— —— ===== PAGE 4 ===== THE TeCmdil | A MONTHLY JOURNAL OF IDEAS ON LIBERTY JUNE 1960 Vol. 10 No. 6 LEONARD E. READ President, Foundation for Economic Education PAuL L. PoiroT Managing Editor THE FREEMAN is published monthly by the Foundation for Economic Education, Ine., a non- political, nonprofit educational champion of private property, the free market, the profit and loss system, and limited government, founded in 1946, with offices at Irvington-on-Hudson, New York. Any interested person may receive its publications for the asking. The costs of Foundation projects and services, in- cluding THE FREEMAN, are met through volun- tary donations. Total expenses average $12.00 a year per person on the mailing list. Donations are invited in any amount — $5.00 to $10,000 — as the means of maintaining and extending the Foundation’s work. Accepted as controlled circulation publication at trvington, N. Y., with additional entry at New York, N. Y. Copyright, 1960, The Foundation for Economic Education, Inc. Printed in U.S.A. Additional copies, postpaid, to one address: Single copy, 50 cents; 3 for $1.00; 25 or more, 20 cents each. Permission is hereby granted to anyone to reprint any article in whole or in part, providing customary credit is given, except “Why | Returned to My lob,” “Communist Capitalism,” ‘‘Suburban Renewal,” and "‘The Thinker.” Fe E Any current article will be supplied in reprint form if there are enough inquiries to justify the cost of the printing. ===== PAGE 5 ===== BWORLD GOVERNMENT A Reactionary Disorder DARRYL W. JOHNSON, JR. THE ENTHUSIASM (and frequent as illustrated by none other than hysteria) for world government Franklin Roosevelt when he said, embodies, and is the culmination “It is better to die standing up of, the entire philosophy of col- than to live on your knees.” In like lectivism. As such, it is a paragon manner, a “police action” or a “re- of false idealism, irrationality, sistance to aggression” or such and misconception. It is based pri- similar phrases do not make a war marily on five major erroneous not a war. Otherwise, we may philosophical, logical, and histori- eliminate war and create peace by cal assumptions. simple semantic expedient. There are types of ‘“‘peace” in the world Peace by Compulsion? today as destructive to the human The first of these is that world Personality as the atom bomb. government would stop wars and Without laboring the point fur- bring peace. It is essential that we ther, it should be obvious that adopt the usual meanings of the P¢ace 1s much more than the ab- words “war” and “peace,” for if S€Nce of armed conflict. } this is not done, we may say that Bearing this in mind, history there is perfect peace in Russia. SNOWS, from the failure of the Peaceful slavery, however, is not Delian League of ancient Hellas, the kind of peace any of us desire, through the Holy Alliance of 1815, — up to the present-day United Na- Mr. Johnson, a teacher of mathematics, in- tions, that the collective approach cluded the remarks here published as part of p . . . a visiting lecture in economics (in which he 10 peace is a dismal failure. Since is al tified) at Hialeah Senior Hi . 5 golso. certified) at Hialeah Senior High the League of Nations and the Hlustration: A. Devaney, Inc., New York U.N,, wars have been both more 3 ===== PAGE 6 ===== 4 THE FREEMAN June frequent and more devastating. the world’s problems are caused World government at best would by government that we should look only transform wars between gov- to government as a solution. ernments into wars between ‘the government’s police force and Minority Control? segments of the empire. And, The second erroneous belief is again with an eye on the world’s that world government would be history, can anyone really believe similar to our own here in the that a government powerful United States, and would not re- enough to thus “enforce the peace” duce individual freedom. The very would not soon become one of the philosophy of force which under- most corrupt instruments of total lies world government and the power and oppression in the his- thinking of its advocates belies tory of man? this concept. Are not advocates of " The United States constitutes world government the same people, but 1/15 of the earth’s surface with extremely few exceptions, and 7 per cent of the world’s pop- who have advocated diminution of ulation, yet we are having enough States’ Rights, stretching of the difficulty preserving liberty on this Constitution, abandonment of the small segment, let alone the whole Connally Amendment, and inter- world. The fact that others ;would ventionist policies generally? Have be helping us is of negative value not such policies already resulted when these others have little or in the restriction of individual no conception of liberty as we freedom? know it in America. Advocates of world government We experience great difficulty are fond of making a distinction electing representatives adequate between ‘‘human rights’ and to deal with local problems. Are “property rights.” Now, not only we to imagine this situation im- are property rights hurhan rights, proving with the permanent intro- but no human rights are secure duction of world problems? How without property rights, as our are governments handling world Founding Fathers so well under- problems these days anyway? Are stood when they revolted in de- they doing a fine job — or do we fense of “life, liberty, and prop- not see that governments unable erty.” This is a small sample of to tend successfully to their own the ideological disparity between affairs could not possibly attend the philosophers of world govern- to the world’s affairs? How odd, ment and the architects of the when it is so obvious that most of Constitution. ===== PAGE 7 ===== 1960 WORLD GOVERNMENT 53 Government, to be controlled, Involuntary Brotherhood? must be kept near home. As the The third fallacy is that world area of government increases, the government would bring all men area of the individual just as together —the ‘brotherhood of surely decreases. man.” World government would A brief perusal of the United not unite people . .. it would Nations charter will show that merely unite the governments at it is as similar to the concept and the expense of the people. Unified content of our Constitution as a trouble would hardly mean less triangle is to Wednesday. How trouble. And why should we all could we expect otherwise? Most unite, politically or any other way, of the world’s peoples have never as long as we follow the golden known" the free society, its com- rule and keep our noses out of forts, its securities, its spiritual places where they are not wanted? and ideological background. How As Cobden said, the key to peace could we possibly expect such lies in ‘as mueh intercourse as " peoples to create anything faintly possible between the peoples of resembling the government of the the world . . . as little as possible United States? Would the found- between .the governments of the ing of such a government be a world.” popular movement in the sense of Brotherhood based on compul- the American Revolution, or a sion is not brotherhood any more movement sponsored and consum- than government subsidy is mated by existing governments, charity. If compulsion is not nec- most of which are outright dicta- essary for it, then we will have torships? brotherhood without world -govern- America can serve the world ment. A brief consultation with best by continuing to be a shining the dictionary will show that every example of the fruits of freedom definition of brotherhood implies and limited government. Other na- the concept of voluntarism, near- tions may copy us if they so de- ness, and a relationship between sire, but for the United States to one individual and another. It may dilute its philosophy with the rub- be argued, rightly or wrongly, that bish of the world would be to raze the Christian concept modifies the the pinnacle of civilization —it principle of nearness and expands would be the greatest of moral the relationship to exist between crimes — economic, political, and one individual and all men, but it ideological suicide. Nothing could is still a problem for the individ- possibly be more reactionary. ual; it is still voluntary, and most ===== PAGE 8 ===== 6 THE FREEMAN June important, men are to be brothers ings’ by a thorough discussion of under God, not under world gov- just how and why a world gov- ernment. ernment would work. At best, we are asked to forego What Can We Lose? a tangible success for something, The fourth error lies in the be- as Shakespeare said, “full of sound lief that whatever we would have and fury ... signifying nothing.” to give up for world government would be well worth it. Let us see Freedom without Individuality? what we have, that we may know The last, and most remarkable what might have to be given up. doctrine in the world government We have a country with the repertoire, is that world govern- oldest written constitution in the ment is essential for social prog- world, a country whose freedom ress to overcome our ‘cultural has been so universal that our lag” and catch up with the tre- greatest danger is that people will mendous advances in science and take it for granted; a country technology. This is like saying that which produces nearly 50 per cent it is essential to jump into the of the world’s goods, and provides water that we may keep dry. It therefore, the only possible bases is an argument which illustrates for security, charity, literature, the peculiar blindness to both logic the arts, sciences — all the finer and fact which seems to be the things of life. All this we have, exclusive province of the contem- and more than volumes could tell, porary collectivist. It is a classic yet we are asked to give up part or non sequitur. parcel of our hard won and well- If one were requested to com- deserved heritage to avoid being pile a list of the great achieve- called “chauvinistic.” The desire ments of civilization, such a list to retain the proven success of would be associated with great in- America in preference to that dividuals, from Solomon to Jesus, which experience shows to be a Plato to Santayana, Galileo to failure is simple common sense. Einstein, Haydn to Wagner. No Such desire is hardly based on a one seems to believe that the “misunderstanding of the pur- ‘Mona Lisa” could have been poses and functions of world gov- painted by a committee. Certain ernment,” as so many social phases of human endeavor, espe- studies texts state. Such texts, in- cially science and technology, seem cidentally, discretely refrain from to have been blessed by society’s clearing up these “misunderstand- realization that achievement in ===== PAGE 9 ===== 1960 WORLD GOVERNMENT 7 these fields must be individual in government last. While it is im- character. The entire history of portant to know that the Consti- scientific and technological prog- tution limited government, it is ress is the history of individuals, equally important to realize that from Euclid to Ford. Progress has this limitation applied almost ex- been accelerated by the division clusively to the central govern- of labor — the individualization of ment. Such limitation is the only effort and responsibility. There possible way to secure self-gov- have been great advances in all ernment, for a man cannot be ex- areas where responsibility has pected to assume responsibilities been kept closest to the individual. with which he is not charged. To miss this point is to miss the Arguments to the effect that story of liberty and one of his- ‘the world is smaller now” miss tory’s most important lessons. the point if they are used to jus- As John Chamberlain so aptly tify governmental remedies. Pro- perceives in a statement backed fessor Burgess, over 37 years ago, up by Sir Henry Maine's Ancient refuted this idea and the claim Law: “Individualism belongs to that we should therefore abandon the maturity of the race, not to our historic policy of noninterven- its beginnings.”! tion. He stated, “This claim rests If social scientists are really upon the very serious error that anxious to secure governmental world intercourse and world inter- harmony, they will abandon their change of the elements of civiliza- irrational fear of liberty and ex- tion require political interference tend the principle of individuation and intermeddling. This is not to all phases of human relations. only false, but it is so false as to The American Constitution was be highly mischievous and harm- the first utilization of this prin- ful. Outside of this lies the whole ciple — placing the responsibility free realm of trade, commerce, for government upon the individ- science, literature, art, and social ual first, the community second, relations, things which bring all the state third, and the central parts of the world together in — friendly and helpful interchange, Co., 1959. p. 60. Also consult the first six most always provokes hatred, en- chapters of Sylvester Petro’s The Labor mity and war. . . Policy of The Free Society, (New York: ‘ JU Ronald Press, 1957), which contain as The freedom of individual brilliant a discussion of government and thought and expression, of indi- freedom as may be found anywhere. vidual initiative and invention, ===== PAGE 10 ===== 8 THE FREEMAN June and the free interchange of the re- reaction. Each step along this road sults of these great spiritual turns the clock back hundreds of forces, are the powers which make years. for civilization both local, national, It is true that man does not and universal, while governmental always govern himself perfectly, interference through its orders, but he can hardly be expected to commands, directions, limitations, learn and to progress by being de- punishments, and wars has done prived of the opportunity to do so. much to restrain rather than al- If the fruits of decentralized gov- ways to advance the world’s true ernment cannot dispel forever the prosperity.”? foggy vision of world-wide, cen- tral control, then one can only The miraculous success of the wonder if man is doomed to re- American experiment in individu- peat a large segment of painful ation and self-government, plus history for not having learned the tragic history of collectivist from it the first time. Unity and palliatives should be enough to peace will come only as man convince anyone that the road to changes from within — not as gov- world government is the road to ernments seek to force man to _— . change from without. Our great- 2 Burgess, John W., Recent Changes in . . : American Constitutional Theory. Colum- est task is to see that man has the bia University Press, 1923. pp. 12-13. opportunity for such change. = A Paternalistic Government IN ANCIENT Greece Pericles inaugurated the feeding of the peo- ple out of the public treasury. A hundred years later Plato found that he had so completely debauched the Athenians that they were reduced to pauperism. Instead of working, they hung around the market place gossiping, and their characters were so " weakened that the State was forced to hire barbarians to defend it from invasion. A paternalistic government is bound to destroy the self-reliance and self-respect of the people. When those at- tributes go, everything goes. Those are the virtues which have made our country great and those virtues alone will keep us great. SENATOR THOMAS P. GORE, on the day Congress closed in 1934 ===== PAGE 11 ===== An Insurance executive J. EDWARD DAY examines Social Security and other manifestations of the “Welfare State” and explains why... We Can't Afford It! As the new decade dawned, we saw dominant degree by public funds. many predictions of the bold new We are used to hearing it said things needed for the surging that even though a certain pro- population of the sixties. There gram might be desirable for adop- was mention, of course, of new tion by a city, county, or state plants and facilities to provide government, the particular govern- new jobs, of more homes, and of ment unit simply can’t afford it. more new products to go with Each of us is familiar with situa- those homes. But where in another tions where local governments era this awakening to rapid have “made do” with older public growth ahead might have meant buildings, or with something less expanded farm output, new rail than perfection in quality of serv- lines, more steel capacity, and the ices, pay levels for public em- like — financed in the past by pri- ployees, and modernization of vate capital — the top needs now streets, sewers, and schools. emphasized are highways, schools, There have always been those, airports, rapid transit, water re- of course, who insisted the federal sources, public housing for the government could not afford this elderly, more hospital beds, more or that new or expanded program. capacity in colleges and universi- But the fact that the federal gov- ties, space research, “closing the ernment can go hugely into debt missile gap,” aid to underdevel- without voter approval of bond oped countries — all of which must issues (states and cities usually be financed in whole or to a pre- can’t), has made the ceiling on —_— . federal spending highly flexible. Mr. Day is Vice-president of The Prudential . Insurance Company of America. So on federal spending, those who 9 ===== PAGE 12 ===== 10 THE FREEMAN June could make a good case for ‘“desir- ings dollar as the federal income ability” could almost always pre- tax. And by 1969 the Social Se- vail over those who asked, curity tax, even to support the “Where's the money coming program as it now stands, will be from?” For the federal money was 9 per cent of taxable payroll — always forthcoming — even if it with half to come from the em- meant, as in fiscal 1958-59, a $12 ployee (and not deductible from billion deficit in a peacetime year. the employee’s federal income Suddenly, at a time when pres- tax). sure for public spending at all - We have to face up to our total government levels was never needs for future spending at all greater, the day of reckoning has levels of government, assign prior- arrived. Eighty billion dollars of ities among programs and proj- the federal debt must be refinanced ects, do some major retrenching in 1960 at a time when 5 per cent in existing public programs to federal bonds have appeared on preserve solvency, and then decide the scene for all to see. All at once whether we can afford to open we hear about “gold drain” and the door to a vastly expensive, ex- “deficit in international payment pansive federally financed health balances” and even “flight from care program. the dollar.” Getting federal spend- The Forand Bill would amend ing and debt under control is no. the Social Security Act to provide longer a matter of argument —it broad hospital, nursing home, and is a crystal clear necessity. surgical benefits for all persons Near term federal tax reduc- — already 18.7 million — receiving tion seems less and less a sensible payments from the Social Security possibility. State and local taxes program. This group includes not seem bound to continue their up- just those men over 65 and women ward climb. The theory that the over 62 who are entitled to bene- federal government was going to fits, but also widows with chil- confine itself to certain kinds of dren under 18, and totally disabled taxation and the state and local persons entitled to benefits and governments were going to confine their beneficiaries.! themselves to others, has proved to be just that: a theory. State in- 1 Editor’s Note: What may have hap- come taxes (with ever higher pened with regard to the Forand Bill by rates), school district income the time this article appears in print is " d eit 1 t anyone's guess. But there need be no axes, and Clty payroll taxes are goyht about the economic consequences competing for the same net earn- of any such political measure. ===== PAGE 13 ===== 1960 WE CAN'T AFFORD IT! 11 To provide the benefits proposed conduct a crash spending program to the limited group described in case of war or depression, the would cost over $2 billion the first leeway is now gone. In view of year and between $6 billion and our situation on federal borrowing $8 billion by 1980. It would mean difficulties, it is clear we are gam- that Social Security costs would bling there will be no international increase by 26 per cent on a long blow-up and no economic blow-up. term basis. Where Social Security If we did have either, the money will cost nearly 9 per cent of pay- would have to come from practi- roll by 1969, just as it now stands, cally confiscatory tax increases the Forand Bill would bring the superimposed upon the wartime over-all cost to 11 per cent of tax- tax levels we have continued into able payroll. peacetime. What is more, (1) the Forand Present-day taxpayers will find Bill, if enacted, is bound to be only it ironic to be told that govern- a “first step” to an enormously ex- ment financial leeway exists only panded and still more expensive in still higher federal taxes. But federal health care program, (2) that is the sad fact. And even that invariably these publicly financed weak reed, that inadequate leeway, health care plans (such as in Eng- is being weakened still further by land and Canada) have cost far rising Social Security tax rates. more than was estimated when Social Security taxes must come they were proposed, (3) other ex- out of the same pie (i.e., tax base) pensive liberalizations of the So- as taxes for missiles, federal debt cial Security program are in the service, highways, schools, city offing, (4) the Social Security pro- police, county jails, or whatever. gram as it now stands may be so For obviously 100 per cent of the badly underfinanced that major public’s earnings is the whole tax tax increases may be needed just source pie: the complete, final, to pay for benefits already nonexpandable tax base, no matter promised. what the tax or the tax purpose or the taxing entity is called. It No Further leeway doesn’t help to say that Social Let us face up to another new Security taxes are “special pur- fact of life that has overtaken us pose” or “not in the federal fairly recently. Where in the past budget.” Except for a capital levy our federal government had a large (an unthinkable device) all taxes, amount of leeway, through deficit no matter what they are called or spending and increased debt, to where they are budgeted, have to ===== PAGE 14 ===== 12 THE FREEMAN June come out of earnings of the public. the existing program, say the Many have a mistaken belief Trust Fund will be used up en- that Social Security is a savings tirely by the year 2000. But, big plan, with the payroll taxes saved as the Trust Fund seems, it would up to provide for the employee’s have to be three times as big as it future benefits. The fact is that now is just to pay future benefits Social Security is a pay as you go to the 13.7 million people already plan — or, more accurately, an on the benefit rolls. And other tens under pay as you go plan. of millions are qualified to become We have graciously provided new recipients in the future. that employees of 1969 shall pay a 41% per cent rate for the benefits Already we are postponing the for which employees of 1959 paid evil day on paying for the present 21, per cent (3 per cent beginning Social Security benefit structure. with 1960). When it comes to the multibillion The Social Security Trust Fund dollar addition to the structure is in fact only a contingency re- proposed by the Forand Bill — we serve. Some estimates, based on can’t afford it! > Worth Repeating A CRASH ATTACK on the major problems of health suits our im- patient culture. But those who might be commissioned to do the research know that it is poor strategy. At present we are more limited by the state of general scientific knowledge than by want of specific instruments or difficulties in engineering . . . Histori- cally the method of uncommitted wondering has been the source of major ideas. From the confusion of detail general principles emerge — not because they are summoned for some crash pro- gram but because they are already latent in the facts that are available . . . Obviously we, in various specialties, and the public at large have a common interest in seeing that a substantial base of scholarship is supported in its own right and not as an instru- ment in achieving some popular goal . .. It may indeed be proven by history that ignorance and folly were greater evils than cholesterol or cancer. VINCENT P. DOLE, M.p., On Crash Programs ===== PAGE 15 ===== TAX CONSCIOUSNESS Or — HERITAGE OF THE WELFARE STATE It was a sunny afternoon At story-telling time. Old Kaspar clipped a fresh cigar ___ And spiked his rum-and-lime, . While Peterkin and Wilhelmine Looked at the futurama screen. They saw a street where men and boys Were sleeping in the shade Or drifting slowly in the sun Along the esplanade; While merchants leaned against the doors, As idle as their empty stores. “Are all those men and boys on strike?” A The little children cried. “It is a sort of wildcat strike,” Old Kaspar soon replied, “Against the yoke the Welfare State Inflicts on people born too late.” “A Welfare State,” said Kaspar then, “Builds pyramids of debt. It leaves a trail of unfilled claims And bills it never met. It keeps ahead of bankruptcy By mortgaging Posterity.” “Those youngsters quit their work or school When they became aware That paying off colossal debt Is all that’s left to share. Their lives began so late, you see, * That they comprise Posterity.” “Who'll pay the debt,” asked Peterkin, “If all the youngsters balk?” Co “We'll hold that question,” Kaspar sighed, - “Until the Planners talk. Perhaps the foreign friends we've made Will bail us out with grants-in-aid.” H. P. B. JENKINS Economist at Fayetteville, Arkansas 13 ===== PAGE 16 ===== FEATHERBEDDING A Way of Life 7 LEONARD E. READ THAT'S a helluva way to run a For this same job, it later had railroad! —a common expression to pay three days’ additional directed at actions patently ab- I a ho that dic surd. “it should” have been called to This colloquialism might not do it. have stemmed from the economic Eight engine crews are re- absurdities imposed on American quired on the 16-hour run of a railroads, but it surely applies to famous name passenger train that industry in this nation today.! between New York and Chicago. The absurdities here in question When a contractor used his are popularly alluded to as own self-propelled railroad crane in the construction of the Pru- “featherbedding.” For instance: dential Building in Chicago, The railroads are forced to work rules required a railroad hire “firemen” who tend no fires to furnish an engineer as on push-button locomotives. “pilot,” even though the crane was operating on an unused A railroad in Oregon recently was required to pay each mem- track. ber of a yard crew 32 hours’ A westbound freight makes wages for 11% hours of work. a stop every day at the North 1 According to Time: “When Rock Dakota border, not to pick up Island railroadmen complained about cars but to take on a third their corncob-filled caboose mattresses brakeman, Two brakemen are half a century ago, the trainmaster enough in Minnesota, but North chided, ‘What do you want — feather Dakota has an “excess crew’ term loosely coined from this incident to describe the purposeful spreading out of work to make jobs —has become an pletely surplus man. Just over the Montana line, the train stops emotion-packed point of dispute between and lets the unnecessary brake- U.S. management and labor in a broad man off. Two brakemen are spectrum of industries.” again enough across Montana 14 ===== PAGE 17 ===== 1960 FEATHERBEDDING — A WAY OF LIFE 15 and Idaho — but as the train list of these labor union ‘“accom- nears the Washington border, a plishments” is staggering. third brakeman once more is added since Washington also has Accurate Definition Needed a long-outmoded excess-crew What, in essence, is this thing law. called featherbedding? The defini- The above are only random sam- tion in my desk dictionary must ples of union inspired featherbed- have been written by a devotee of ding — as obviously absurd to the «the new economics”: “The prac- layman as they are disgusting to tice of limiting work or output in the economist. Such practices, in order to provide more jobs and railroading alone, according to The prevent unemployment.” American Association of Rail- Here is a more picturesque as roads, cost $1,500,000 each day!? well as a more accurate definition American railroads, however, of featherbedding: The bedding are not the only sufferers from gown of self with feathers coer- this affliction. A person intimately ¢iyely taken from others and with familiar with the construction in- yothing whatever given in ex- dustry could detail the feather- cpange. bedding in that important segment With this figurative but other- of our economy. An individual who wise accurate definition in mind, knows the entertainment business jt js appropriate to examine the could describe the orchestras paid scope of this practice. Is feather- for not playing, the stage hands pedding accepted and sponsored “employed” to do nothing, the elec- by labor unions alone? Or are tricians drawing checks for hours others equally guilty? Is feather- of idleness, ad nauseam. Similar phedding becoming more and more to elevator operators getting paid 5 way of life in our country? If so, for not operating automatic eleva- maybe some of us who are con- tors! Or, bogus typesetting!® The cerned about the motes in the eyes "2 Interestingly enough, this is about of labor leaders should look to the the daily cost of another featherbedding beams in our own eyes, lest we practice: storing of the surplus farm find ourselves in the awkward posi- commodities built up by the government's price-support program. 4 No one needs a degree in economics 3 Today, many advertisements come to to understand that featherbedding does newspapers in mats, sent by the agen- not provide jobs. Simply imagine every- cies. The typesetters, however, are not to body being hired to produce nothing. be done out of their wage. They set Further, to regard payment for doing duplicate advertisements in type, run nothing as a job is to rob the word of off proofs, proofread their handiwork and, its meaning. “Jobbery” is the right word then, promptly knock down the type! for this. ===== PAGE 18 ===== 16 THE FREEMAN June tion of the-pot that called the subventions to states or districts kettle black. or communities, tariffs, or what- What about the farmers who ever — all are examples of feather- receive hundreds of millions of bedding, just as absurd as “fire- dollars annually for not growing men” drawing wages on push- things? Are they not being bedded button diesels. down with “feathers’ coercively taken from the rest of us? Political Jobbery What about the people in the If anyone doubts that feather- Tennessee Valley who get their bedding is the “new” way of life power and light at below-cost in these United States, then let rates? There’s a multimillion him carefully examine the plat- dollar deficit each year, which the form of the two major political rest of us are forced to make up. parties as they emerge from this Aren’t these people being bedded summer’s conventions. Each will down with “feathers” coercively try to out-do the other’s promise taken from the rest of us? of free-feathers-for-all, meanwhile And the manufacturer who minimizing the fact that you- stays in business by having a tax know-who will be plucked in the imposed upon his. competitors’ process. And, at the same time, products? Is this any less feather- each will pay fervent lip service bedding than labor union outlaw- to the American way of life, per- ing of spray painting in order to sonal responsibility, private enter- compel a continuance of the more prise, lower taxes, and an end to expensive and time consuming inflation. brush painting? This sort of political double talk Examine the federal budget — will go on as long-as it is market- as “wordy” as Manhattan's Tele- able, as long as the current naivete phone Directory — for thousands among the citizenry persists; or, upon thousands of examples of re- conversely, until more vote leaders sort to the Marxian ideal, “From than now recognize featherbed- each according to ability, to each ding, not only in its labor union according to need”! Subsidies for form but in all its other forms, travel by plane or bus or ships at for precisely what it is — political sea, farm price supports, federal jobbery. > ===== PAGE 19 ===== HN 18 P “os i ‘ rel ee) eo JIE A SN v, ve #0 - \ —’ RA NNT Ns THE FOUNDATION OF TH Uo pa oS I ~ Pst HE EE “A. [HEE { . faa [EE i Lae I | IR ¢ PN * {eon Ol Sir pm : PUTER AAR HE FN ANE ed) MM Mh: Fa [I SO i SR sri ; , I. rR Fa ty IN ISM EV I IERIE Tad SER B . ns CL - FUNG 4 N RN ! NTA GASOTENNL NN HAROLD E. SCHLICHTING, JR. © . | THE FREE way of life rests upon The question of determinism or the conviction that men are freely free will is a philosophical matter, willing creatures with the capacity but determinists frequently base to choose between alternatives. their case on what they regard as Freedom of the will is man’s pri- the scientific method. mordial liberty, the fountainhead A distinguished British scien- from which every other freedom tist, the late Sir F. S. Taylor, stems. The free way of life is not states the position as follows: simply the absence of arbitrary, “Science finds no evidence of free external controls — the absence of will in matter and energy.... outside bondage reflects and im- Matter and energy, however or- plements man’s inner liberty. We ganized, have no free will. So, if favor the free society because man consists of nothing else than every variety of totalitarian order matter and energy, then man has violates the demands of man’s na- no free will. The materialist, like ture. But if free will is an illusion, everyone else, has the experience as many contemporary philoso- of free will and acts as if he were phers assert, we cannot complain free, for no one could live without about the massive denial of free doing so; but he regards this choice which is a collectivist so- sensation of free will as an illu- ciety. Totalitarianism is the end sion.”! Thus we are not really result of the denial of inner lib- free; we only think we are! erty, however much determinists According to Freud, “No act is may disavow this ultimate conse- uncaused and the illusion of free quence of their position. "1 Taylor, F. S., The Fourfold Vision. Dr. Schlichting is an Independent Research London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1946. Biologist at Port Sanilac, Michigan. p. 68. 17 ===== PAGE 20 ===== 18 THE FREEMAN June will simply comes from the fact 1.All of our actions are deter- that some of our motives are un- mined by our body chemistry conscious.”? and interrelated past experi- Dr. E. G. Boring of Harvard ences; they are determined ac- University goes further, saying cording to the laws of physics that ‘freedom, when you believe and chemistry. it is operating, always resides in 2. No act is uncaused and free will an area of ignorance. If there is is an illusion. a known law, you do not have free- 3. The belief in free will is due to dom. ... Both freedom and chance ignorance of antecedent causes. are terms that are used when effi- 4. The question of free will vs. cient causes of present events are determinism is unanswerable. not known and often appear un- knowable.”3 This is another way of Morality Depends on Choice saying that our .concept of free It would require a book to ex- will is due to our ignorance! He plore all of the consequences of adds that belief in human free- these propositions. However, three dom is merely “a useful supersti- of these seem most apparent to tion” but concludes “to get rid of me. First, for people living by the this concept would change the Judeo-Christian concept of life, whole of our civilization.” free will is essential. The disobe- Obviously, the despots of today, dience of the first man to God and as of yesterday, are attempting to its consequences presupposes free annihilate the concept of free will. = will. If the basic pillars of our civiliza- An outstanding American gene- tion can be shaken, their hope is ticist, Dr. T. Dobzhansky, made that the house will erumble. In the following comments: ‘Ants fact, denial of free will has been and termites are neither heroes ‘the basis for all totalitarian sys- when they defend their own nests, tems and their power over men! nor villains when they rob ‘those The arguments against free will of their neighbors. They are de- may be grouped into the following void of virtues and vices because major categories: they lack the freedom to decide _ between possible alternative . 2 McClelland, D. C. “Freud and Hull: courses of action. ... Insect be- Pioneers in Scientific Psychology,” ~ havior is, then, not reducible to American Scientist, 45:101-13. 1957. a common ethical measure with +3 Boring, E. G. “When Is Human Be- wi havior Predetermined?’ The Scientific human actions. Praise and blame Monthly. pp. 189-196. April 1957. have . meaning only in connection ===== PAGE 21 ===== 1960 FREE WILL 19 with acts in which the individual there can be no human rights or is at least to some extent a free justice. This is the formal justifi- agent. ... Moral rightness or cation for every exercise of totali- wrongness have meaning only in tarian power. The existence of connection with persons who are free will is essential to this con- free agents, and who are con- cept of human nature upon which sequently able to choose between our justice is based. different ideas and between possi- Third, there could be no virtue ble courses of action. Ethics pre- because virtue is a state of char- supposes freedom. ... Ethics, as acter concerned with choice. If such, have no genetic basis and the latter is taken away, there is are not the product of biological no way for goodness to assert it- evolution.” Thus for the deter- self. minists who base their philosophy upon genetics and evolution, there actually is no ethical system for These three, Judeo-Christian be- them to adopt! lief, justice, and virtue, are all Second, our entire judicial sys- interrelated in our western civili- tem is premised upon the exist- zation. They are the basis for our ence of free will; man is presumed civilization, and it is obvious that responsible for his actions. There our way of life, as we have known could be no moral law and order it, cannot exist if we accept the without it. The act of justice is teaching of those who contend that to give each man his due and is there is no free will. preceded by an act whereby some- This is not a one-sided argu- thing becomes his due. Therefore, ment. Contrary to many modern one’s right must precede justice! teachings, the concept of free will As Josef Pieper, a noted philoso- is supported by numerous philoso- pher, has stated, “We cannot phers. Unfortunately, most of state the basis of a Right and them are dead! It is auspicious, hence a judicial obligation, unless however, that their ideas “live” we have a concept of man, of on. Even though ignored or de- human nature.” If in truth there famed, the materialists have not is no distinctly human nature, then succeeded in destroying them. "1 Dobzhansky T. The Biological Basis The question of freedom is one of Human Freedom. New York: Colum- of the most difficult, most reward- bia University Press, 1956. pp. 93-94,132, Ing, and most pressing in meta- 5 Pieper, J. Justice. New York: Pan- physics. For a thinker of the theon Books, 1955. pp. 1-24. stature of Descartes it was free Judeo-Christian Foundations ===== PAGE 22 ===== 20 THE FREEMAN June will alone or liberty of choice they believe that the laws of chem- which he declared to be so great istry and physics do not apply to an idea that he could conceive no the will and intellect — these being other to be superior. nonmaterial entities. Those who would have us be- “Free Will" Defined lieve that free will is’ due only to What do we mean by free will? our ignorance are merely stating We may use Webster's definition that in the final analysis it is an as a starting point: “Free will: illusion. Some men are more ig- Unhampered or uncoerced choice. norant than others and this ignor- The doctrine that human beings ance in a sense makes them less are not controlled in their choices free. This fact, however, does not by physically or divinely imposed nullify the concept of free will. necessity.” Free will cannot, of Dr. Etienne Gilson, a scholastic course, be expressed under coer- philosopher, proposes that man is cion or irrationality by its very both free and determined, i.e., man definition. is free to choose the means to the To concede that the free will end but is not free to choose the question is unanswerable, is really end itself. In “choosing the means not to confront the problem at all. to the end,” Gilson writes, “the For one meets problems and must choice is free beyond all doubt. make decisions throughout his en- Man indeed does not choose his tire life; to do otherwise would be end; necessarily he wants to be to merely vegetate! It would be happy merely on account of his extremely inconsistent if a person nature as man; but various routes lives part of the time as if he to happiness lie open, and he is were truly free and at other times free to choose what seems to him as if he were not free at all. the best for the purpose.””® Human To state that no act is uncaused happiness is the determined end and that therefore free will is an for all men because of their very illusion is to misunderstand the nature; man cannot will to be un- free will position. The proponents happy! All particular decisions of free will do not claim that their are directed toward this end. Since actions are uncaused but that the choice is not concerned with the individual causes them from end but with the means to it, man within. Indeterminism is the un- does not choose of necessity but tenable view that events are not 7% Gilson, Etienne. The Spirit of Me- caused. Advocates of free will are gizepal Philosophy. New York: Charles not materialistic determinists; Scribner’s Sons, 1940. pp. 319-321. ===== PAGE 23 ===== 1960 FREE WILL 21 freely. Free will implies the power what it is! This fact is forgotten to choose a good or poor means to in this age of socialization. an end depending on the ration- Body chemistry and our past ality of the individual and his de- experiences are certainly impor- sires for what he believes will tant in influencing our choice of bring happiness. He may choose action. They allow for our selec- any of a multitude of possibilities tion of alternatives but they do for obtaining his happiness. not determine them. Our past ex- . periences and bodily chemistry The Responsible Individual “set the stage” for the operation The truth of free will can only of our intellect and will to make a be discovered and proven within choice from genuine alternatives ourselves! Why did I choose to do of action. However, the intellect a certain act? 1 chose it as a and will are “actors” which do not means to some end which may be have to follow the script! Qur be- called the attainment of my hap- havior in carrying out some action piness. Thus, I am self-directing we have decided upon as a means and I believe it because there is no to achieve our end, is subject to conclusive evidence to the con- physical-chemical laws, biological trary. coordination, and our reason. Be- Frank Chodorov in his “Free cause a series of choices in your Will and the Marketplace” (THE past influences your present FREEMAN, January 1959) stated: choice, one cannot say that you “Many persons who would abolish were determined to choose as you free choice in the market place, did due to your past experiences. logically conclude that man is not It has not been proven that your endowed with free will, that free past experiences are determined. will is a fiction, that man is merely This materialistic determinism is a product of his environment. This only an assumption of those who premise ineluctably leads them to do not believe in free will. denial of the soul and, of course, Injection of “truth serum” and the denial of God.” Every truly physical violence can narrow the great man has risen above his en- alternatives between which a vironment! He not merely comes choice is possible. But one is still from it, as a part, but he adds to free to go counter to this coercion it. Society has its impact on man even until irrationality or uncon- but it must also be remembered sciousness results. As the martyrs that men have their impact on of history have shown, men, in society. Actually, they make it fact, have resisted these forces ===== PAGE 24 ===== 22 THE FREEMAN June and have given up their lives of traits passed from parents to rather than to select the alterna- offspring. The truth of this theory tive choice. By their very suffering is based upon its empirical verifi- - and death support is given to the cation and its predictive value. concept that man has free will. Similarly, the Judeo-Christian Chemical, physical, and psycho- concept of life is important be- logical forces do not rob man of cause it explains, in part, the whole his free will. When one does sub- nature of man, his origin, and mit to force of any kind, it does destiny. The truth of this concept not mean that he does not have is based upon empirical verifica- free will but that the freedom of tion (i.e., behavior) and its pre- action is denied to him! dictive value for man in attaining Some would claim the martyrs happiness. Both the Gene Theory could not have done otherwise, and the Judeo-Christian concept that they had to suffer and die be- of life go beyond empiricism itself cause of their past experiences. It to an over-all explanation of real- is easy and natural to choose non- ity. Some scientists accept the first suffering but very difficult and in- but reject the second proposition! deed against our materialistic na- In his explanation of man the ture to choose suffering. The mate- materialist reduces man to one as- rialist, logically, could not be an pect of his nature, and then uses intentional martyr. Certainly, this part in his attempt to explain there have been no martyrs for the whole. As far as most thought- the stand against man’s freedom! ful persons are concerned materi- alism has not been successful in Material and Spiritual explaining man. In fact, they have For most of us man has both a not as yet given a satisfactory ex- material and a spiritual nature - planation of the basic tenet of their fused into one being. Man’s spir- belief, namely, matter. itual nature is not physically de- ) termined; man develops his moral Overcoming Adversities nature based upon both the mate- Human freedom doés not mean rial and the spiritual aspects. The that we can do anything we wish; spiritual aspect can be demon- it means that we can do some strated to exist empirically by the things we wish, and it is very im- very behavior of men themselves. - portant to know what those things For example, ‘the. Gene Theory is are. Free will can be limited only important in biology because it in the carrying ‘out of ‘actions: explains, in part, the transmission there being no thought control as ===== PAGE 25 ===== 1960 FREE WILL 23 yet in the free world, as set forth operates even under the most ad- in Orwell's 1984. Of course, there verse conditions. The act of free are some events which happen to choice is an act of both the will us through no choice of our own. and intellect. The acknowledgment These may be due to natural ca- . of these nonmaterial entities is es- tastrophies or the decisions of sential to our free way of life. Ac- others. Our birth and usually our cording to Gilson, “wherever there death are not of our own. free is intelligence there is free will; choosing; yet their occurrence and the more intelligence there 1s does not invalidate our concept of by so much is there more liberty.” free will. The following may limit Perhaps an explanation as to why our free actions: some persons do not believe in free 1. Our native intelligence, which is will is implied in the preceding hereditary. . quotation. 2. Our total experiences in life, Much more has been and can be which are environmental. and written on the concept of free will fall into three main restrictions: and its importance to our way of a. Faulty education - : life. It is one of those fundamental b. Socialism (where human re- truths which must constantly be lationships are coerced) pondered anew, lest inferior and c. Poverty (If the essentials nec- even untrue propositions replace essary to sustain life are lack- them. It is up to each individual ing, our behavior is influ- in the free world to safeguard enced but not determined) these truths upon which our free- Nevertheless, our free will still dom is based. ~ The Importance of Virtue IT WILL BE WORTHY of a free, enlightened, and . . . great Nation to give to mankind the magnanimous and too novel example of -a People always guided by an exalted justice and benevolence. . . Can it be that Providence has not connected the permanent felic- ity of a Nation with its virtue? The experiment, at least, is rec- ommended by every sentiment which ennobles human nature. Alas! is it rendered impossible by its vices? GEORGE WASHINGTON, Farewell Address ===== PAGE 26 ===== W. L. HUNTER _ Editor's Note: Refusal by the Stereotypers Union to bargain on key issues led to strike action on November 10, 1959, against the daily newspapers of Portland, Oregon. Subsequently, several members of the Portland Newspaper Guild defied union leaders and returned to their jobs. Among them was W. L. (Larry) Hunter, a copyreader for the Oregon Journal for more than 15 years. His explanation — along with others — was published jointly by The Oregonian and Oregon Journal in a special issue of "'Strike Facts.” IT 1s MORE difficult for me to ex- When it became obvious that no plain why I waited. so long to re- such course would be followed, I turn to work — five weeks — than determined to act as an individ- to tell why I returned. However, it yal. Naturally, I was pleased that boils down to conformity. One dis- several others had acted in con- likes to be set apart from his fel- cert. lows, even if he thinks they are In the first place, I never wrong, however earnestly. ~~ thought the strike had valid rea- Although I voted against strike sons. Having decided that, I could at every opportunity and made my hardly think it right for my union position clear to fellow union Fo members by speaking in meetings © back the dissidents, purely on the premise that, unless we did, and out against the strike, I de- ) layed my return, hoping every We could expect no reciprocal aid day that my union would see at some later time when we might "things more clearly, would return want to strike, perish the thought. as a group —or at least make an In the second place, it took only offer to do so. a day or two of publication to Illustration: Ewing Galloway, New York prove to all concerned that the 24 ===== PAGE 27 ===== 1960 WHY I RETURNED TO MY JOB 25 strike was a strategic failure. A False Propaganda Spread strike is to shut something down. The transparent falseness of This one never did. While it is union propaganda was during the wonderful to be right, it is no dis- strike and now, embarrassing to grace to be wrong — provided one me. The other day a college boy of is intelligent enough to admit it, my acquaintance said to me, “Well, and act to right the wrong. one thing you’ll have to admit is From a personal standpoint I that the Guild got vacations for considered the two sides. On one you.” hand I had loyalty to my family, What rot! Somebody told him to my contracts with creditors, to that and he believed it. But we my union’s contract with my em- had vacations before there ever ployers, to my own personal wel- was a vote on the American News- fare, and to my employers, who paper Guild by any Journal em- had always been kind and in addi- ployee. Granted: Negotiations tion — through a period of my bad have figured in obtaining a third health — had been generous to the week of vacation. point that I was ashamed of my- The unions condemn manage- self for being aligned against ment for strike insurance (if it them. exists) but point with pride to On the other hand, I was faced their own half-billion-dollar war by the preachments of unionism, fund for the purpose of sustaining that one must always be loyal to strikes. all other members of his union, How is it fair for one, and not and to all other unions, even for the other? though he hardly knows many of Unions gladly accept the fruits the individuals, does not know of inflation, pay raises, benefits others at all, thoroughly disagrees of all sorts, but refuse to take any with many, and opposes the prin- of the blame for inflation. ciples for which many of them In this strike, particularly, the stand. unions have put on an intensive I could not quite swallow the campaign to damage the reputa- premise that my always friendly tion and circulation of the news- employers — now known with some papers, yet they say they want to mysterious opprobrium as “man- return to work in those plants. agement” — had suddenly become The union press trumpets about an ogre, and, on the other hand, the neighborliness of the men out anybody carrying any union card on strike, while some of those same automatically was a plaster saint. men and their representatives are ===== PAGE 28 ===== 26 : . THE FREEMAN June spitting at workers, knocking them on strike was painted with a glow down, kicking them while they are of courage, it actually was smudged down, and calling them names. = with fear. First, there was fear I wear a hearing aid. One my union would be denied support woman sympathizer of the strike, "of other unions unless it backed in ‘the presence of some of my all other unions in a strike. Seec- erstwhile friends, thrust her face ond, there was fear the act of into mine at the door of The Ore- striking had alienated the em- gonian plant and told me that she ployers to the point where union hoped I lost the. hearing in my members could not expect jobs or other ear. anything else but abuse unless the That’s neighborliness? = __. strike was fought to a bitter end. ~~ 1 simply did not believe that. He's Not “Imported” _ + TI called a representative of my Mind you, I'm no “imported employer and found that I was strikebreaker.” I've worked for right. I was welcomed back to the Oregon Journal since March work, as would have been as many 8, 1944. Since 1948 I've been a “others as could have been used home owner, always at the same in the emergency operation that Northeast Portland address. I've had been forced upon management paid my bills, most of them nearly by the strike. on time. I decided this strike was no Union men tried to dissuade me mere incident in a series of bluff- from returning to work. They and-yield labor negotiations. It said they had worked in nonunion seemed to me historic. Manage- plants elsewhere and had been. ment had been pushed to the mistreated. Perhaps so. But any point where it could afford to of them who says he or his union” yield no further. Whether I like was mistreated in The Journal it or not, I am in an economic cir- plant simply is not telling the cumstance where I must work for truth, a living. It was a case of a very There is leeway on time off, on real job or a dubious union theory. days off, on hours of ‘schedule, and” on other factors of Journal em- Strike Is “Svicidal” : ployment that would make half Naturally, I regret that more the other workmen in Portland of the workers have not returned. green with envy, union or _non- Some of them are fine' craftsmen. union. I hate to see many of them jeopar- I found that, while staying out dize their jobs and lose their foot- ===== PAGE 29 ===== 1960 WHY I RETURNED TO MY JOB 27 holds in a.community which some America we are permitted to of them undoubtedly love as much choose our own church, or abstain as I do. from religion if we so desire; we But I could go along no further can pass freely across the borders -in:a suicidal denial of responsi- of municipalities or states without bility. While I respect the history permission; but we cannot cross a . of ‘ unions" and grant that some picket line established arbitrarily + (but only some) of the benefits I by a union. now’ enjoy are due to union nego- We can vote for any candidate "tiation, I cannot accept unionism for public office whom we favor "as a creed, something to be wor- or belong to any political party shipped. without question, but we are ex- I cannot close my eyes to the pected to subscribe to pre-ordained fact that there would be nothing union principles and pay tribute to negotiate, if it. were not for to them if we want to work. management’s investment that makes jobs possible. I object to that. And I work to It seems strange to me that in sustain my objections. pe Voluntarism I WANT TO URGE DEVOTION to the fundamentals of human liberty — the principles of voluntarism. No lasting gain has ever come from compulsion. If we seek to force, we but tear apart that which, united, is invincible . . . SAMUEL GOMPERS, first President of the AFL, and Father of the American labor movement, in his speech to the 1924 Annual Convention of the AFL I Do NOT BELIEVE in forcing a man to join a union. If he wants to join, all right; but it is contrary to the principles of free govern- ment and the Constitution of the United States to try to make him join. . WARREN S. STONE, former Grand Chief Engineer, Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers ===== PAGE 30 ===== FEET of CLAY WILLIAM HENRY CHAMBERLIN OVERESTIMATION of the success of (who are somewhat fancifully sup- communism in the Soviet Union posed to keep their eyes glued .on and in China is becoming the fash- comparative production statistics ionable intellectual disease of of India and China) will decide the West. Khrushchev’s transpar- that communism is really what the ently phony boasts of surpassing doctor ordered. the American standard of living Writes the British publicist, in the fairly near future are taken former Laborite MP, and hotgos- seriously, although as yet no peller of nationalization, Mr. queues have begun to form before Michael Foot, in a recent issue of Soviet consulates for permanent The Spectator: immigration permits. And it is a rare day when someone does not tell us that, unless American tax- payers put up a big contribution for the industrialization of India, Indian and other Asian peasants “Like it or not, one of the most spectacular events of our age is the comparative success of the communist economic systems . .. Considering the tumultuous forty years through which the Russians Mr. Chamberlin is a skilled observer and re- have lived, the achievement by any porter of economic and political conditions at home and abroad. He has written a number of reckoning is stupendous.” books, has lectured widely, and is a contribu- tor to The Wall Street Journal and many And Mr. Foot, who would quite nationally known magazines. . : ; Illustration: Sovfoto sincerely repudiate the imputa- 28 ===== PAGE 31 ===== 1960 FEET OF CLAY 29 tion of being a Communist him- vindicated itself by its results? self, uses the alleged stupendous First, it might be noted that a success of the communist economic good many Russians and other na- system as an argument for his own tionals of the Soviet Union are in pet panacea: wholesale nationali- no position to express an opinion zation, public ownership and allo- on this question — because their cation of resources. And not a few lives were prematurely cut short Americans are proceeding from as a direct result of certain eco- the assumption that the Soviet nomic and administrative policies economy has turned out a howling of the Soviet government. success to the conclusion that Several million people perished America also should have more in the famine of 1921-22, which public direction of its economy and was in large part a result of irra- imitate the Soviet Union in other tional persistence in a system ways, as in greatly extending fed- known as war communism, which eral controls and federal expendi- destroyed peasant incentive to pro- tures in education. duce by requisitioning arbitrarily It is always easy to create a whatever the State decreed was utopian picture of conditions in his surplus grain. Several million a country which is imperfectly more would have perished if known, like the Soviet Union, or American “imperialist capitalists,” hardly known at all, like Red large and small, functioning China. It is always a temptation to mainly through Mr. Herbert assume, if something is amiss in Hoover's ARA (American Relief the United States, that things are Administration), partly through better ordered in Russia. various religious and philan- Mere misjudgment of a foreign thropic groups, had not violated country is relatively harmless. But all the accepted rules of class war - it becomes harmful if it leads to by bringing in food to save Rus- ill-advised recommendations for sians, Communists and non-Com- imitation of the practices of this munists alike, from starvation. country, without any considera- There was another famine in tion of the over-all comparative 1932-33 which took at least four balance sheet. million victims. This was even more clearly due to Soviet eco- The Dead Do Not Complain nomic policies than the disaster of What about this assumption 1921-22. It grew directly out of that the Soviet economy, now in the determination of Stalin to im- its forty-third year, has fully pose collective farming; starvation ===== PAGE 32 ===== 30 ' THE FREEMAN © June was the penalty when the peasants true that, by forced development cut down production and neglected of a state-directed economy along their fields. militarist lines, the Soviet Union Some ten million persons passed has developed capacity to inflict through slave labor concentration formidable damage on the United camps during a quarter of a cen- States or any other enemy — but tury of Stalin’s terrible rule. Here with the virtual certainty of re- again there was a direct connec- ceiving formidable damage in re- tion with the economic policies turn. But, as regards the thousand which Mr. Foot finds so admirable and one little comforts and ameni- .and successful. For much timber ties that, along with such staple cutting, digging of canals, coal and needs as food, clothing, and hous- gold mining, and railway con- ing, make up a national standard struction was the work of the hor- of living, the Soviet Union is easily ribly maltreated, overworked, "at the bottom of the list of indus- underfed prisoners in these camps, trialized powers and shows little of whom a large number died. prospect of emerging from this If one further counts the un- position. One might think, on known numbers put to death in reading some of Khrushchev’s paranoid purges, the many victims flights of fancy, that “catching up of the deportations under appal- with America” was a reasonable lingly inhuman conditions from prospect just arourid the corner. Poland and the Baltic States, the Actually, the gap between the abnormally high percentage of United States (and the more pros- German, Italian, and other war perous countries of* Western prisoners who died in captivity, it Europe) and the Soviet Union in is evident that the price of the almost everything that makes for Soviet economic system, in terms individual comfort and satisfac- of human lives, was fantastically tion is wide and, in thany cases, high and incomparably higher growing wider. For instance, the . than any sacrifice required under number of new telephones in- alternative systems. stalled every year in the United . oo States exceeds the total number Few Consumer lrems of telephones functioning ‘in the And, even if one puts aside the Soviet Union. The number of auto- dead, and thinks only of the living mobiles that will roll off thé United Soviet citizens today, have they so States assembly lines in 1960 will much reason to regard their lot surpass the total number on the ° in life as supremely happy? It is Soviet roads today. ===== PAGE 33 ===== 1960. FEET OF CLAY 31 One subject never mentioned by - lesser inventions, which either are Nikita Khrushchev when he en- altogether new or have developed deavors to draw favorable com- from rare luxuries into everyday parisons with the United States possessions. is bathtubs and plumbing facili- Moreover, it is a safe assump- ties. Here the American lead is so tion that, had there been no com- long that one would hesitate to set munist revolution in Russia, the any date, however distant, for country, with its vast population, Soviet “catching up.” its rich natural resources, its . Even in those straight figures proved ability in science and in- of industrial output which often dustrial development, would have bear little direct relation to indi- moved forward enormously during vidual well-being, and where the the last four decades. Maybe some Soviet showing is apt to be figures of output of coal, steel, strongest, the lag behind America machinery, and tractors would not during ‘the early fifties was in have been so high, although even some cases widening, not narrow- this is uncertain. But the living of ing. Between 1950 and 1956, the the average Soviet citizen would United States lead in kilowatt have been much more comfortable hours of electricity increased from and the grim casualty list from 298 billion to 483 billion. In oil famines, purges, and executions output, the United States margin would have been spared. grew from 229 million tons to 270 million tons. In Spite of Controls Conversations with two experi- Some Progress Inevitable enced journalists who were re- . That the Soviet Union today is cently in Russia and in other coun- enormously ahead of Czarist Rus- tries of Eastern Europe, one an sia in most branches of industrial American, the other Swiss, should production, although not in agri- dispel decisively Khrushchev’s cultural output, is undeniable. But image of a Soviet Union breathing is this not equally true if one looks down the neck of the United States back to the status of production in peaceful economic competition, technique - in any industrialized The American, who speaks fluent country over a period of forty-two Russian and was able to make com- years? Think how American life parisons with the Soviet Union has been revolutionized in that as he knew it in the thirties, re- time by the automobile, the air- marked on how little had changed plane, the radio, and a host of in the villages where half the So- ===== PAGE 34 ===== 32 THE FREEMAN June viet population lives: the same sim- by the Central Committee of the ple huts, the same poor roads, the Soviet Communist Party on the same absence of almost all the great and serious shortcomings in conveniences that the American the field of communist propa- farmer takes for granted. He was ganda. For more than forty years also in Bulgaria and reported that the Soviet government has en- the Russian guide, assigned to joyed, in many ways, monopoly Soviet tourists in that country, control over the minds of its sub- had a hard time explaining why jects. The schools, the press, the living conditions in Bulgaria were radio have published only official visibly more agreeable than in the viewpoints. Yet the Central Com- Soviet Union. mittee admits, in a statement The Swiss journalist, one of few which is given maximum publicity, Westerners who got into this most that propaganda for the Party secluded of the Soviet satellites, viewpoint has “only a narrow obtained the impression that sphere of influence,” that it ‘does Albania is more comfortable for not embrace the masses,” that ‘““the the foreign visitor than the Soviet merits of socialism and commu- Union. He also felt that Poland nism are often described in weak was far ahead of the Soviet Union terms,” and much more to the in its standard of living. Perhaps same effect. : it would be more realistic for In short, when propaganda is Khrushchev to set as his goal strongly at variance with the facts catching up with Poland and Bul- of life and human nature, it is garia before he tackles a race with apt to backfire. the United States. , The very relaxation of the ex- } CL treme terror which prevailed un- The Party Line Is Unconvincing der Stalin poses new problems and Part of the fascination of com- difficulties. For, when people no munism for some Western minds longer live in dread of the mid- is that it supposedly supplies all night knock on the door, they the answers, eliminates elements begin not only to -think, but to of doubt and conflict. But this is a speak more freely. There is much false image. The outwardly im- evidence that Khrushchev has been posing statue of a monolithic po- obliged to walk a narrow tight- litical, economic, and social order rope, on the one hand rejecting has feet of clay. the crude Stalinite methods, but Consider the implications of a on the other hand seeing to it statement put out early in 1960 that the trickle of permitted liber- ===== PAGE 35 ===== 1960 FEET OF CLAY 33 alism does not become a flood, If one could accept at face value sweeping away the very bastions the propaganda ‘facts and of communist dogma. figures” reeled off by communist Another contradiction comes up officialdom and the more ecstatic in connection with the new policy tales of individuals who return of professing to favor closer cul- from subsidized trips, China would tural relations with foreign lands, have to be considered an earthly exchanges of visits between Soviet paradise, and it would be difficult and foreign scientists, artists, to understand how anyone would scholars, students, and common or wish to leave. But, although there garden tourists. Here the diffi- has never been even the semblance culty, from the standpoint of the of a free election in China or in Soviet rulers, is to go through the any country under communist motions of implementing such a rule, there have been some rather policy while preventing the entry impressive unofficial plebiscites of dangerous ideas from the West. which point in a very different Even now, very few Soviet citizens direction. are permitted to travel outside For instance, about 20,000 Red the frontier of the Iron Curtain. Chinese soldiers were captured This situation is hit off by a during the war in Korea. Although current Moscow joke. A Soviet the United States military authori- professor is supposedly telling the ties leaned over backward to give members of his class that, as a representatives of Red China full result of the achievements of So- opportunity to urge these men to viet science, they can soon travel return to their homes after the to Venus, to Mars, to the moon. end of hostilities, about three- “Yes, Professor,” pipes up a quarters preferred to go to For- timid voice, “but how soon can we mosa and take their chance under travel to Vienna?” the nationalist government there. LL There was an equally significant The Situation in Red China reluctance on the part of North In communist-ruled China there Korean prisoners to return to is perhaps a still wider gap be- their Red-ruled homeland. tween propaganda appearances When the Chinese Nationalists and living realities than there is evacuated the Tachen offshore in the Soviet Union. Indeed, by islands in 1955, they offered the comparison with Red China, the 18,000 inhabitants a free choice: Soviet Union could almost be con- to remain under communist rule sidered an open society. or to be evacuated to Formosa. ===== PAGE 36 ===== 34° THE FREEMAN June The option was about 1,000 to one is how people have invariably in favor of Formosa. voted against communism, by run- The British Crown Colony of ning away from it, in Asia and in Hong Kong, an island directly off Europe, in China and Korea, in the coast of China with an ad- Germany and Hungary. jacent strip of mainland, has an overwhelmingly Chinese popula- The essence of communism, in tion, very much increased by an Russia or in Ching, is its awesome influx of hundreds of thousands effectiveness in exploiting the in- of refugees from Red China. This dividual by means of the power of is an age when the tides of na- a State that is absolutist, in poli- tionalism and opposition to for- ties as in economics. When the eign rule are rising high. Britain State fixes prices, wages, and has faced various forms of anti- profits (in state-run enterprises),: colonial trouble in many parts of the individual is caught coming its rapidly shrinking empire, in and going. Such an omnicompetent Cyprus, in Malta, in British State beats the progressive income Guiana, for instance. tax as a means of stripping the Had conditions in China under: individual of the chance to direct communist rule improved, it would his own life and of reducing him have been reasonable to expect to the status of a robot serf of stormy demonstrations in Hong the government. Kong calling for the return of the Should the United States ‘be so territory to China. But there has misguided by the hasty accept- not been even a peep to this effect. ance of the counterfeit coin of And the reason is obvious. The communist propaganda as to in- stories of pillage, slavery, and ject still larger doses of statism hunger under Red rule, brought into its own economy, the time by the refugees, have created in might come when Americans the whole Chinese community of would be running away from their Hong Kong a mood of complete country at the risk of their lives willingness to let the British “im- and when a foreign visitor would perialists” go on running the find that—although Anmnierican place. satellites were touching all points Lenin remarked once that the in outer space—the: American Russian Army, at the end of World standard of living was rather in- War I, voted for peace with their ferior to that of Paraguay or feet — by running away. And that Bolivia. -~ ===== PAGE 37 ===== EDWARD J. WEBSTER CAREFUL ANALYSIS of the com- that nobody any longer need be munist system reveals it as a hoodwinked. . } flimsy texture of frauds. In our Unfortunately, there is a vast title we have linked the words deal of confusion concerning basic “communist” and “capitalism” in economic facts of life. For exam- order to examine the most bare- ple, what is “capital”? “Capital” faced of communist frauds— is a generic or general term. It namely, the monotonous condem- includes the entire mass of ma- nation of “capitalism.” For more chinery, tools, instruments, and than a hundred years, Communists devices accumulated from past have paraded their “down with production for use in present and capitalism” slogans and prattled future production. Capital has en- incessantly about what they allege abled man so to use the power re- are the all-embracing evils of capi- sources of nature — water, steam, talism. Meanwhile, within less and electricity, conspicuously — as than forty years, the communist both to reduce the amount of hu- system which the Kremlin gang- man effort required for essential - sters would impose upon all of us . goods and services and to do count- has become the most arbitrary, less things that he could not other- arrogant, rigid capitalism the wise do at all. The division of world has ever known. It is now so labor and specialization in produc- easy to make that indictment stick tion that yield thousands upon Mr. Webster is retired, having taught at sev- thousands of luxuries as well as A Ee eT G0 oun ePs; Necessities are made possible by research capacities. This is one of a series of capital. By means of capital em- articles reprinted by permission from The . . . Sarasota News, Florida. ployed in modern transportation 35 ===== PAGE 38 ===== 36 THE FREEMAN June and communication, some of the and free enterprise. The underly- limitations of space and time have ing similar characteristic of these been overcome. We travel across is that at some time and in some the continent.in a few hours; we manner a portion of what had have around-the-clock reports of been produced was saved or set world-wide events as they occur; apart and made available for fu- and, if we wish, we may have a ture production in some area of message sent around the world in the economy. No padding of “ide- a matter of minutes. Nor should ological” gossamer can conceal the the marvels of modern medicine fact that all capital so formed and be overlooked. Not infrequently, a so used must, sometime, some- half million dollars may be spent where, and somehow, have been in the development of a single “created” in the process of pro- product—which the public straight- duction. It was not pulled out of way takes for granted. Regardless a magic hat. of the form it may take or the At this juncture one point must manner in which it is applied, be emphasized — and remembered. practically everything that now The communist economy, in order contributes to our unprecedented to further its aggressive schemes, standard of living and to the broad is more dependent upon capital enrichment of our life is depend- than is any free nation in the ent upon capital. world. Indeed, all of communism’s } boasted achievements have been Something Saved made by the use of capital. It is But what is “capitalism,” that true, of course, that the various avowed evil for which the Com- tools and devices now used by munists pretend to have such bit- ‘communist capitalism were not de- ter hatred? When — after what veloped in communist states. They has in the past usually been a long had been developed by other sys- process of accumulation or “for- tems of capitalism before they mation” — major productive activi- were “expropriated” (stolen) by ties, such as mining, manufactur- the Communists. But, for the re- ing, and the like, are directed by placement of their present supply those who own or control the capi- of tools and devices as well as for tal required, it may be said that the development of new ones, the some type of capitalism has devel- Communists must save a portion oped. Historically, various types of their product for use as capital. of capitalism have been identified: The point calls for no debate. That industrial, trade, financial, state, which originates as capital, be- ===== PAGE 39 ===== 1960 COMMUNIST CAPITALISM 37 haves like capital, and does the slaughtered. Add to that the toil work of capital, is capital. Neither of countless thousands of slave the method by which it is formed workers in concentration camps, nor the mechanism by which it is where the depravity of communist controlled can ever invalidate that administration plumbed appalling fact. depths. By such methods the com- “All capital is capital, but sys- munist State has taken — and con- tems of capitalism differ. Qur tinues to take — from the “national main interest now, therefore, is to product” as much as it chooses for examine the distinctive character- use as capital, all of which is istics of communist capitalism. In owned by the State. The state what respects is it different? What ownership of capital is a Marxian makes it tick as it ticks? must and the hard core of com- munism, Expropriation Even more significant than the How is communist capital manner of acquiring capital is the “formed”? In the first instance, method by which communist capi- as has already been pointed out, talism is controlled and directed. much of it was confiscated, expro- The system is a totalitarian dicta- priated — stolen. But the outra- torship. Because the State owns geous lengths to which communist the capital, it controls the use of capitalism, as an operating con- capital without limitation or re- cern, has been willing to go to in- straint. Inasmuch as the State thus crease its capital is one of the wields absolute power over pro- blackest marks on its sordid rec- ductive activity, there is no pos- ord. The entire system of the Com- sibility of the interplay of those munists — wages, plane of living, factors and forces which make a everything — is geared to that ob- free market. And that means the jective. Their boasted “five-year virtual control of consumption as plans” were designed to speed the well as of production. accumulation of capital, and the degree of their success has de- Pisregard of Human Values pended upon the extent to which The alleged achievements of food, clothing, and housing were communist capitalism must, there- withheld from the hungry, ill-clad, fore, be measured by its own oper- and ill-housed. In order to set up ational procedures, not by the capitalized collective farms, the yardstick of civilized efficiency. By land was seized and the dissenting their own standard they are in landowners were mercilessly violation of the most sacred hu- ===== PAGE 40 ===== 38 THE FREEMAN June man rights and human values. By ing of the things we want and treating persons as mere things — need, will continue to depend upon as means to its end — communist some system of capitalism. Mr. Joe capitalism is thus guilty of what Doakes will not be making his own . must, in any tolerable system of shoes or building his own auto- either ethics or religion, be re- mobile. garded as the unpardonable sin. As a matter of fact, the Com- Which Shall It Be? munist Party never has had any But what kind of a system of respect for, or faith in, the people - capitalism do we want and are we it seeks to bamboozle with its fan- resolved to defend in the United ° tastic fairy tales of a classless so- States? A few of the ugly con- ciety, a State that withers away, trasts between communist capital- and a dreamy future in a welter ism and our own people's capital- of sweet reasonableness on flowery ism within the framework of our beds ‘of ease. Karl Marx himself Constitution provide solid basis expressed the party attitude in for the answer to that question. concise language when he said, Communist capitalism is a “The Communists have over the gigantic monopoly, so sweeping in great mass of the proletariat [the its activities that it extinguishes common people!] the advantage some of our most cherished human of clearly understanding the line rights; our people’s capitalism of march, the conditions, and the emerges from free decisions freely ultimate general results of the pro- made. The motivation of com- letarian movement.” It is of rec- munist capitalism is cold-blooded ord that a certain’ notorious ‘authority —a dictatorship; our character, speaking before a con- free-enterprise capitalism is an gressional hearing in Washington expression of the democratic proc- some twenty-five years ago, ex- ess. Communist capitalism builds pressed the same sentiment in‘ upon what a despotic government fewer words: “The people are just arbitrarily takes from the people; too damn dumb!” our. voluntary capitalism has its The vital issue before each one being in the foresight, self-denial, of us is not whether we shall live waiting, saving, and investing of within some system of capitalism. free persons. But the: point need Over the ages the accumulation of ‘not be labored. The bedrock differ- * culture in all of its material and -ence between the.two systems is technological aspects has been such simply the difference between ab- that productive activity, the mak- ject slavery and freedom. ‘- pS _— ===== PAGE 41 ===== How the concepts of property rights in England brought to an end . . . ‘The Centuries of Communism GEORGE WINDER ACCORDING to communist theory away and civilization will reach its the whole history of the world dis- final maturity in the perfection of closes a slow and inevitable evolu- communism. tion of humanity toward the type Strange as it may seem, it is of society in which the means of this theory of inevitable evolu- transport, production, and ex- tionary development which gave change will be held in common .Marxist communism the distine- ownership. Feudalism was but a tion of being described as “scien- step in this evolution and, as the tific socialism.” Other forms of so- result of economic forces, modern cialism were expounded by in- bourgeois society arose inevitably ferior thinkers such as Saint Si- upon its ruins, But this is not the mon, Fourier, and Owen, but their end; evolution is proceeding as theories were unhistorical utopian surely as the mills of the gods, inventions, whereas the theories and bourgeois society is slowly be- of Karl Marx gave the world a sci- ing ground into the socialist state. entific interpretation of history. Then the State itself will wither He discerned communism at the ree end of the road, not as the result in England. He has written widely on law, was a Scientific economist. agriculture, and economics, bis most recent . book being A Short History of Money. Better economists than Marx 39 ===== PAGE 42 ===== 40 THE FREEMAN June have discovered that when his likes — that is, to choose the evi- economic theories are original, dence which suits his case and to they are also false; but that has conceal the rest. Why not start at made little difference to his fol- the earliest form of society of lowers, who remain convinced that which we have any record? Start, the all-important scientific dis- in fact, not with feudalism, but covery of the nineteenth century with communism — primitive com- was that the communist society is munism. predetermined. Today this belief in the inevitability of his aims is A New light on Marx the very basis of the Communist’s Now this is not a suggestion strength. It is held with a fanati- palatable to Communists. They cism which, if not resisted, may are, in fact, insulted by it and completely destroy Western civili- will conceive that it is merely a zation. However, when we look at play on words put forward in a the evidence Marx produces for mood of flippancy. What possible this inevitability, we find it of the connection can primitive commu- scantiest possible kind — little more nism have with their ideal form than a catalogue of the types of of existence? Primitive commu- society he found in history. Al- nism is of another world and no though his Communist Manifesto chain of evidence, they believe, does mention Rome, ancient civili- can possibly be found connecting zations are of little use to him for it with the modern communist they failed to evolve in the way ideal. his theories required. They disap- However, when we study primi- pear from history before reaching tive communism we discover facts the final evolutionary stages he which give us an entirely new out- expected. He is, therefore, content look on Marx’s theory of social to tell us that modern bourgeois evolution. We find that there is society has arisen from the ruins not the difference we expected be- of feudalism; and from this point tween the communism practiced in the evolution toward communism Eastern Europe today and that proceeds, by dialectic steps, as the primitive communism Marx ig- class struggle destroys one privi- nored. Also, we find that we can leged group after another. trace the evolution from primi- But, as Karl Marx is attempting tive communism through feudal- to expound a philosophy of history, ism and other intermediate stages he is not entitled to commence his in social development far more chain of causation just where he clearly and with far more support- ===== PAGE 43 ===== 1960 THE CENTURIES OF COMMUNISM 41 ing evidence than Marx provided tory of man when it was possible for his development from feudal- that he did live in a state of ism to the communism of the fu- equality. This was when the only ture. We will be surprised how source of subsistence was the short a time it is since the whole food he gathered in its natural of Europe was occupied by so- state or killed in the hunt. That cieties which were fundamentally equality was due to there being communist, and we will find how nothing left over after the pangs clearly history has marked for us of hunger were satisfied. A man the road from one form of com- got his full share or died. The next munism to another. By following stage began when domestic ani- this road, we will certainly obtain mals were tamed or land was cul- a far better appreciation of the tivated. miracle and virtues of modern so- Land and herds became the first ciety than most of us now possess; form of capital. They were not and we will make the startling dis- personal possessions but tribal. In covery, which should have been ob- this stage of primitive commu- vious from the beginning, that nism there was little more equality the modern communism now being than there is in a communist state experienced in Eastern Europe is today. not the final stage in an evolu- Greater mental or physical tionary process but a reversion of strength or skill gave men privi- mankind to a state of society leges and rights which their less which was universal in the primi- fortunate fellows did not possess. tive and not too distant past. We have numerous studies of } tribes which owned land in com- Extremes of Inequality mon, but nowhere do we find One mistake many people make equality. Tacitus gives us one of concerning communism is to asso- the earliest studies of Europeans ciate it with the idea of equality, in a state of primitive communism. whereas, it seems certain that He describes the Germanic race nothing is more conducive to ex- when cereal production was in its tremes of inequality than the com- early stages and when a tribe mon ownership of the means of cultivated the soil for a year or production. This has been particu- two and then moved on to break larly so when the means of pro- up new ground. All lands were duction has consisted chiefly of tribal lands for which the tribe land. continually had to fight. There There was a stage in the his- was little democratic equality, ===== PAGE 44 ===== 42 THE FREEMAN June slaves were common, and chiefs of the stage of agriculture and gathered around themselves privi- animal husbandry, when tribes leged fighting men to be their were very poor and constantly on companions. the move, there was more equality than when they established them- selves in communal societies on The modern anthropologist can settled areas of land. In fact, un- give us numerous examples of der the. system of tribal owner- primitive societies which held all ship, the greater the wealth the capital goods in common owner- more the power and privileges of ship. When, for example, Euro- the chief increased. He finally ob- peans first reached New Zealand, tained so. much power over the they found not only land but many common source of wealth that no commodities such as canoes held one could disobey his commands. in common. Yet slaves existed and At this stage communism bears chiefs were all-powerful. Some a strange resemblance to feudal- Europeans purchased large tracts ism. The feudal lord has been of land from unscrupulous chiefs mistaken for the forerunner of for a few guns and axes, only to the modern capitalist but, in discover that they had purchased reality, he is the natural and in- tribal land of which they could evitable product of a communal not retain possession. When the or communist society, which must British government eventually es- of necessity place itself at the tablished law and order in New mercy of leaders who will always Zealand, it wisely recognized the abuse their powers. This is prob- Maori custom of holding land in ably as inevitable a trend under common and went to great lengths communism today as it was under to obtain the consent of every the primitive communism of the member of a tribe to land trans- past. “fers. Even today the large number Feudalism can be described as of names on Maori land certificates just one of the stages we have give unending trouble to lawyers. traveled in our development from The American Indian seems also primitive communism to modern to have held land and such capi- free enterprise. This becomes the tal goods as he possessed in com- more evident if we study the ag- mon, but this does not seem to riculture and land tenure systems have resulted in equality. which prevailed in England from It does seem to be true, how- the Anglo-Saxon settlements to ever, that at the very beginning the end of the eighteenth century. Primitive Common Ownership ===== PAGE 45 ===== 1960 THE CENTURIES OF COMMUNISM 43 Cooperative Plowing procedure would start all over The great contribution to agri- again until the whole field was culture made by the Anglo-Saxon plowed into numerous strips and was the heavy plow drawn by up- each man in the settlement, which wards of eight oxen. It was with in time became the medieval this that the early colonists broke manor, had separate strips al- up the lowlands of England and lotted to him all over the open established what is now known as field. Often, of course, there were the open field system of agricul- several plow teams working on the ture. Under this system each set- same field so that the chief would tlement held its land in common receive a very large number of and the greater part was divided strips. into two large fields, one of which Although the plowing was a was plowed every second year and communal effort, the cultivation of sown with rye while the other re- the strips was left to the tempo- mained fallow. It was the custom rary occupiers, some of whom — of ,oxen to pull the heavy plow if there were not enough slaves to through the earth in short bursts do the job — would also have to of energy, a furrow’s length or look after the strips allotted to “furlong” at a time, and then rest. the chiefs and fighting men. The The plow with its string of cattle, which in England from an oxen was very difficult to turn so early date were the property of that the result of a period of work individual tribesmen, grazed dur- was always a long narrow strip of ing the spring and summer months plowed land. This was allotted to on the surrounding uncultivated one member of the plowing team land which — like the open fields — or perhaps to the owner of the was common property. At an plow or of one of the oxen. The agreed date when the rye was har- next strip was allotted to another vested, the field was opened to the contributor to the common effort. cattle of the whole settlement, and Then as each day a new strip was they were driven in to graze the plowed, it was reserved for other second growth. The strips, which members of the community such for a few months had been held in as the blacksmith or the cowherd severance, became once again the and, of course, for the chief and property of the tribe. his companions who protected the This seems, in theory, a fair settlement while the work was be- enough system and probably at its ing done. When each claimant had commencement it was. The early his plowed strip duly allotted, the Anglo-Saxon warriors who had ===== PAGE 46 ===== 44 THE FREEMAN June just conquered the land were free however, the signal for this is the men, and it is only reasonable ringing of the church bell. But the that they should plow up part of rights of those who occupy the the common land for the chief and strips in the open fields have been his immediate companions who completely changed. Instead of the were perhaps constantly on the strips being re-allotted every year, lookout for raiding Danes. As the their occupancy by individuals country became more settled, it has become permanent; and they might be thought that these serv- are held as grants from the chief ices for the chief would become — now become a feudal lord — on lighter; instead they became heav- various tenures requiring personal ier and eventually almost servile. services. Some of these services During the Dark Ages we have are of so light a nature that those little opportunity to trace the de- who must render them can look cay in the status of the Anglo- upon their strips as practically Saxon husbandman; but when the freeholds; other grants are for curtain which obscures history purely military services; but most goes up again in the eleventh are held by villeins who must do century we find that while the agricultural work on the lord of economic system has altered very the manor’s land. Some strips can little, the social system has been pass by inheritance, others are completely changed, thereby up- held for the life of the tenant, setting another of Karl Marx’s others depend on the will of the theories. lord of the manor. Society is di- vided into well-defined strata. Be- England of the Normans low the aristocracy are freemen, As far as the economic system villeins, bordarii, cottarii, and is concerned, the two-field system serfs. The once tribal chief has has given way to three fields, so become very much the lord and that in the eleventh century only master. a third of the cultivated land lies The Conquest has made little fallow every year, while oats, change to either the economy or wheat, and barley have taken the the social system, only substitu- place of rye; but apart from this ting a Norman for an Anglo- there is no fundamental change Saxon lord. The powers of these in agriculture. The plow teams feudal lords are only limited by still work the open fields in strips custom, but the rights of some and the cattle are still turned in stripholders are registered in the for the autumn grazing. Now, King’s Courts. Each lord in turn ===== PAGE 47 ===== 1960 THE CENTURIES OF COMMUNISM 45 owes duties to another feudal lord cattle will be let into the fields. It greater than himself. Few con- inflicts fines on those it considers tractual relationships exist in this do not keep to sound farming prac- early Norman period, the rights tices or who neglect to repair their and duties of every member of so- share of the common fences which ciety being fixed by customs which protect the open field, or fail to have developed during the Dark keep clear the plow-made ditches Ages; and every man has a master between the strips or who at- in a long hierarchy up to the king. tempt to keep more cattle on the We can see such a hierarchical common pasture than they are en- system reappearing in Russia to- titled to. This last is a very fre- day. quent crime in medieval times. It } would be unjust, when all grazing No Private Property is held in common, for a man to The most important character- own as many cattle as he likes. istic of the system, however, is The number must be decided by that no one, not even the lord of the Manor Court according to the the manor himself, can say, “This number of strips each man holds. is my land. I shall do what I like with mine own.” The land of every manor is farmed collectively, fully The Communist will, of course, as collectively as any communist declare that this form of collec- farm in Russia, and its manage- tive farming is nothing like that ment is in the hands of the Manor practiced in Russia today. Well, it Court. This important body which is true that great scientific ad- is presided over by the lord of the vances have been made in modern manor or his steward, is made up times; the tractor, for example, of the occupiers of strips in the has taken the place of the ox. But open field who serve, in rotation, the farming of a feudal manor twelve at a time — thus, inci- does seem to resemble a modern dentally, providing us with the Russian collective farm far more forerunner of the English jury. than it does any individually The authority of the Manor Court owned farm found today in Eng- over the farming of all the open land or America. fields is complete, whether the It certainly cannot be described strips are held by villeins, free- as an example of capitalism. It holders, or the lord of the manor has all the signs of an intermedi- himself. It decides what crops ate stage developed from primitive shall be grown and when the communism.. This collective form Collective Farms ===== PAGE 48 ===== 46 ' THE FREEMAN June of agriculture remained the pre- freedom from their overlords and dominant form in England for these created markets which the nigh on 1,200 years. In most parts more enterprising countrymen of Europe it remained even longer, wanted to supply. Lords of manors and still existed in parts of Russia began to consolidate their strips when modern communism arrived in the open fields by exchange with to supersede it. In certain parts of their tenants, and this gave them England and in the Highlands of a domain near ‘the manor house Wales and Scotland, where the which they could enclose. Some- land is poor, it never developed. In times there was a general ex- the Highlands of Scotland, tribal change of strips among all the communities owning land in com- tenants of the open fields so that mon survived in a primitive form the whole land of a manor became for centuries; but by the days of enclosed. Just as important in giv- the Stuarts, communal rights had ing independence to the farmer . lost all meaning and the power of was a slowly developing system of the chiefs over that land was commuting personal : service for greater than that of any English definite cash rents. This created in- feudal lord. terests in land, many of which be- -. came virtually freeholds. The Beginnings of Ownership But in spite of this, the open Like all forms of collective pro- field form of collective farming duction, the open field system might have continued centuries changed very slowly. It was almost longer than it did had not fate in- impossible for anyone with new tervened in the form of the Black .. ideas to experiment with his strips Death. This dreadful scourge of of land for he had to carry the the fourteenth century, which is. members of the Manor Court with considered to have brought death - him, and in any case he lost his to from a third to a half of the temporary -and partial control over - population of England, consider- his strips as soon as the church ably hastened the change to in: bell rang to let in the cattle for dividualist farming. When this the autumn grazing. But in spite visitation had passed, the lord of of this, there was a slow but con- the manor found many of the tinuous change, almost impercep- strips in the open fields untenanted tible in the life of any one man. and labor extremely scarce. Under Very slowly, individuals began to these conditions there was often raise themselves out of the collec- nobody to object to his enclosing tive mass. Towns grew up to win at least part of his land, and he . ===== PAGE 49 ===== 1960 THE CENTURIES OF COMMUNISM 47 found that there was always some- ‘“Sheepe devour men.” one willing to take enclosed land ‘“Sheepe have eate up our meadows off his hands at a reasonable rent. and our downes Our corne, our woods, whole villages There was one class of country- ” and towns. man who had begun to prosper outside the collective farming sys- and, against the new men of tem even before the Black Death. wealth, This was the man who had devel- «A spawne sprung from a dunghill oped sheep runs in the less fertile birth hill country. He was always will- Now prince in our land.” ing now to rent new enclosures. A But soon the flock masters were great market for wool had grown not the only new capitalists. Un- up in Flanders, and these flock der the Tudors many open fields masters who were free from col- were enclosed by agreement among lective control did all they could the lord and his tenants. Some to meet it. Sheep, the most gre- of these new enclosures remained garious of all animals, thus as- arable and were held on various sisted man to become an individu- terms which frequently gave the alist. The feudal lords with their occupier the security of a free- enclosed domains could have led holder. These men became the first the way in this development but independent yeomen of England. they failed to grasp their oppor- They were assisted by the fact tunity and preferred to lease their that their interest in their hold- land to more capable men. The his- ings could be protected in the tory of Tudor times is full of the King’s Courts. Their property names of new entrepreneurs whose gave them little fortresses of in- fortunes were founded on sheep. dependence which they could hold The new men with their enclo- against all men. It was the source sures were hated by both aristoc- of their freedom. Of this type of racy and commonalty alike, but farmer, one writer tells us, “He they held their own. Henry VIII is lord paramount within himself, found them very useful because though he hold by never so mean their wool earned foreign ex- a tenure. He need not fear his change. He made them hated still audit, for his Quietus is in more when he plundered the heaven.” monasteries. But toward the end of Eliza- The animosity against the flock beth’s reign, reaction set in and masters expressed itself in many what is now known as the period an old saying: of Tudor enclosures came to an ===== PAGE 50 ===== 48 THE FREEMAN June end. From then on, land, still the communal farming was still prac- most important form of capital ticed over the greater part of Eng- the country possessed, remained land, and they may well have been partly enclosed and partly under brought up in counties where any the open field system with the other system was unknown. latter still predominating. Capital- When in 1623 Governor Brad- ist and communal farming con- ford debated with the leaders of tinued side by side. When we con- the settlement whether ‘‘they sider the Civil War and the Revo- should set corne every man for his lution of 1688, it looks as if politi- own perticuler, and in this regard cal feelings were as divided as the trust to themselves,” these first economic system. American farmers were, in fact, Blith, a noted agricultural echoing a debate which at that writer, and one of Cromwell's cap- time was taking place in every tains, was a great advocate of en- English county. closures. He claimed that half the It was not until the end of the enclosed arable land of the country eighteenth century, when internal would produce more than all the dissension had come to -an end, arable land farmed in common, and that the process of enclosure was he did not hesitate to state that renewed with vigor. The reason the supporters of the older sys- for this was that, with security tem were “enemies of the State”’— restored and communications im- an expression we have lately seen proved, it was becoming increas- revived in Great Britain against ingly obvious which of the two those farmers whom Agricultural systems was the more productive. Committees allege to be ineffi- The independent enclosed farmers cient. Cromwell himself owned an were growing clover and grass enclosed cattle farm. pastures which improved grazing out of all recognition. They were Observations on Early America also growing turnips, introduced A reflection concerning Amer- into the country from Holland, ica may here be in order. It is then the most advanced agricul- taken for granted by most Ameri- tural country in the world. One can writers that the communal result of this was that English farming practiced by the Pilgrim animals could be adequately fed Fathers for a few years after they in the winter so that there was landed in America was inspired not the customary autumn killing by religious beliefs. But when and salting in brine of all but the these first settlers left Plymouth, minimum number of beasts. ‘A ===== PAGE 51 ===== 1960 THE CENTURIES OF COMMUNISM 49 study of breeding began, and there Even the owners of cottages re- was a most remarkable improve- ceived land if they could show ment in the size and type of ani- continued occupancy. Invariably, mals. some of the land near the village All these improvements, how- and some of the poorer land no- ever, were confined to the farmer body particularly wanted to fence on the enclosed land. They were was unallocated and to this day impossible in the open fields where provides most English villages all the cattle in the manor were with their Green and Common. turned on to one’s strips as soon as the church bell gave the signal A Problem with Squatters in the autumn. Few who have studied the ques- Under these circumstances the tion have denied the wisdom of demand for enclosure became ir- enclosing the open fields with resistible. But there were many their strips of land occupied by difficulties; always some men re- innumerable farmers and open sist change however desirable it during a large part of the year to may seem. If a few men refused to all the cattle in the manor; it was exchange their strips, which they the enclosure of the outlying graz- frequently held in freehold tenure, ing land that provided the difficul- they could prevent attempts to con- ties. Squatters had often settled solidate and enclose farms. More- themselves on this land where they over, little could be done if the lived in extreme poverty but where Manor Court could not be induced they could always get wood for to agree. fires and perhaps graze a few At length Parliament came to geese or even a cow. When all but the aid of enclosures. Providing it a small part of the manor com- could be shown that three quarters mon was enclosed, this grazing of those holding strips in the had to cease and squatters had to manor’s open fields wanted enclo- move on without any home or se- sure, Parliament would always curity whatever. Furthermore, pass a private bill permitting it, some who had owned a few strips and Commissioners were sent to in the open field now found them- see that the open fields were di- selves with land which was too vided justly among all those who small to justify the fences and owned strips or held them by any buildings necessary for enclosed lessor tenure; the Church and farming; and they sold out to sometimes charitiesereceived their larger holders. When they had share from the Commissioners. spent the purchase money, they ===== PAGE 52 ===== 50 THE FREEMAN June also felt dispossessed, and joined plications for enclosure, and very in the outcry against the new sys- soon the land of Great Britain tem. This outcry was so great that ceased to be collectively controlled to this day it has left in the minds by Manor Courts and the individ- of most British people a wholly ualist farmer was fully estab- distorted view of enclosures. Many lished. At this period when the believe them nothing but the il- land was being turned over to legal seizure of the property of capitalist agriculture, there was the poor. also a great increase in the ac- But this idea is completely false. quisition of capital assets other They were the exchange and con- than land. This form, of capital solidation of previously acquired was accumulated by merchants property rights. The people of and manufacturers who owed England would have starved if this nothing to a feudal superior. With change in the system of agricul- the adoption of capitalist enter- ture had been delayed any longer. prise, British agriculture entered The most radical writers of the into a golden age of progress eighteenth century supported en- which was just in time to provide closures. No one was more elo- the New World with many of its quent and sympathetic in describ- leading breeds of farm animals. ing the misery of the dispossessed squatters on the commons than Nothing New in Communism Arthur Young, probably the most Karl Marx was extremely un- noted writer on agriculture of the scientific when he commenced his period, yet he states, “While a analysis of the social system at county is laid out in open fields, medieval feudalism. Had he gone every farmer tied down to the back to the beginning of history, husbandry of his slovenly neigh- as he should have done, he would bour, there can be no good hus- have discovered that there is bandry.” It was the improvement nothing new in communism. When he saw in the newly enclosed farms we study history, few social pat- that caused him to coin the fa- terns can be pronounced upon mous phrase, “the magic of prop- dogmatically; but nothing is more erty turns sand into gold.” certain than that feudal England Between 1760 and 1815, eight- was not an early form of capital- een hundred Enclosure Acts were ism —it was instead a late stage passed by Parliament. Then an of primitive communism. The Act was passed to provide a suit- feudal lord was not the first capi- able procedure for all future ap- talist boss but the last communist ===== PAGE 53 ===== 1960 THE CENTURIES OF COMMUNISM 51 chief until he was resurrected as One Manor Survives the commissar of the twentieth In England today most of the century. villages with their crowning As Marx believed that commu- churches have occupied the same nism was a new system to which site for centuries. But the appear- society was evolving, he expected ance of the countryside, with its it to appear first in the more in- enclosed fields surrounded by dustrially advanced countries such hedges has delighted the eye of as England and America. Instead, man only since the eighteenth it came first to Russia and very century, when the greater part of nearly to Spain, the most back- England was enclosed for the first ward countries in Europe. This is time. In Laxton in Nottingham- comprehensible enough when we shire there survives one manor consider that in both these coun- which still retains the open field tries individualism was a young system. It is kept alive now as an and tender plant unable to stand interesting survival and the Manor the chilling frost of the ideas Court meets in a local pub. The Marx so assiduously propagated. lord of the manor is the Minister Innovation, invention, change, of Agriculture. all depend on the freedom and the In many parts of the country duty of the individual to stand on and especially in the Midlands, his own feet. We can revert to the marks of generations of plow- communism very easily for it is ing in the open fields, and allow- the only system mankind has ing water to make channels on known throughout the far greater each side of the strips, have not part of his existence. It is not a been entirely obliterated. If the system to be attained by effort American airmen who now fly so but one which returns to us when frequently across the English we dodge responsibility and fail countryside will observe the grass- to preserve our defenses; particu- land below them very carefully, larly our religious defenses. It is they will see that much of it is like the jungle awaiting silently characterised by long undulations around us ready to creep back like the ground swell of the sea. and swallow up our feeble efforts Except for Laxton and the many the moment we cease struggling village commons which still sur- to hoe our vegetables and sow our vive, these just visible lines of an- grain. When it comes, it will not cient strips are all that is left of be an advance in evolution but a the age-old communist agricul- reversion to barbarism. ture of England. > ===== PAGE 54 ===== $6,000 To Plan live in large expensive homes 7 and spend a good deal of time Highland Park bellyaching about federal BY JACK MABLEY spending and socialistic schemes. AYBE somebody can tell ( me what business it is * * * of the federal government to spend federal tax money to BUT Highland Park was hap- help people of Highland Park, py to apply for and accept Illinois, draw up a master plan. $6,000 from the federal Urban What could be more local Renewal Administration as a than a plan for streets and sew- grant to help them make a \ ers and traffic control and plan. apartment regulations in a This, in a nutshell, is one small Illinois suburb? reason why we are in such a { This is nearly the ultimate financial mess in Washington. absurdity of federal interven- “We've got to cut taxes, tion in local affairs. we've got to cut spending. Just The absurdity is com- wait till I get mine, and then pounded by the fact that High- let’s all economize.” land Park is a very wealthy The conservatives in High- suburb populated largely by land Park should be ashamed hard core Republicans who of this. ===== PAGE 55 ===== On the Scientific Methods and Truth DANIEL K. STEWART ONE of the great idealists of the But surely, to speak and act last century, Bernard Bosanquet, with a view to obtaining the truth once said that “it is not cleverness in all matters is simultaneously to or learning that makes the philos- speak and act from a world view opher; it is a certain spirit; open- having different norms and values ness of mind, thoroughness of than what prevail in our time. work, and hatred of superfici- Indeed, we are told that to be ality”? interested in such pursuits is to be His point, of course, was not in- most impractical, and that no one tended to apply merely to philoso- is really interested in the truth. phers but to any and all persons We are told to wake up and stop who might be interested in truth dreaming, that the bald-faced fact for its own sake. Thus, his remark is that we are living in an irra- would apply equally well to per- tional world. We are told that sons engaged in scientific work, in throughout history, different sys- politics, in economics, in religion, tems of what constitutes truth or any other activity where the have existed. Which system, if any, avowed intention is the expansion is the valid one for eternity? Is and acquisition of knowledge that empirical knowledge truth? Is is reflective of reality — be it seen knowledge gained through revela- or unseen. tion truth? And by these ques- "1 Bosanquet, Bernard. The Essentials tions, the Implication 18 that of Logic. London: Macmillan and Com- “truth” is relative, depending on pany, reprinted 1948. p. 167. how each of us defines the mean- Dr. Stewart is an instructor in the Department ing of that word. To think other- of Natural Science at Michigan State Univer- . . . sity. wise is to be old-fashioned, some- 63 ===== PAGE 56 ===== 54 THE FREEMAN June what unsophisticated, and at best, construing the spiritual brother- just a wee bit naive. hood of theology in terms of bio- But, for all of this, for my part, logical brotherhood.) if we are to be good judges we It would be of little moment, of must say what we think. And our course, if these views and epithets thought is that to those who are came from people with limited ed- under the false impression that ucation. But, on the contrary, agnosticism, cynicism, or intellec- these views and epithets come tual nihilism is modern, I would from members of the “intelligent- suggest that they dust off some of sia,” from people who hold those books they have been indoc- Ph. D.’s. They come from univer- trinated against and start reading sity administrators whose primary Plato’s Protagorus and Theaetetus. responsibility, ironically, is to ful- In these two dialogues in par- fill the trust placed in their hands ticular, we meet Protagorus, the to carry on the best traditions of original progressive educator. our society, to endow their stu- Here, in the fifth century B.C.,, we dents with moral principles, to meet up with the doctrine that instruct them in the ways of be- everything has a relative truth coming more human. only; there are no absolutes, in Accordingly, we are awe-strick- that “man is the measure of all en when some university presi- things.”’2 dents find it repugnant for their students to take an oath of loyalty . } } to their country while others Thus, even while this doctrine p,141y disseminate, as progress re- stems from antiquity, we find it ort the moral relativism, “Man passionately embraced as a first jg the measure of all things.” article of faith by those very peo- ple who would accuse conserva- The Spirit and Methods of Truth tives of trying to turn back the Thus, Bosanquet's remark of clock, as being ‘reactionary’ in the nineteenth century sounds ex- political affairs, and as being com- ceedingly modern when compared parable to “fundamentalists” in with the type of philosophy enun- religious matters. (A “fundamen- ciated by many within our pres- talist” for these people is anyone ent-day academies of higher edu- who fails to grasp the “logic” of cation. 2 Plato. The Dialogues, tr. by B. Jow- The “certain spirit . that Bosan- ett. New York: Random House, 1937. quet is talking about is, of course, Vol. 11, p. 153. the spirit of truth. And the “thor- An Ancient Fallacy ===== PAGE 57 ===== 1960 ON THE SCIENTIFIC METHODS 55 oughness of work” he mentions lem than anything else, hinging on refers to the methodological tech- what is meant by “science.” nique employed while seeking this Even so, it is an interesting truth. These are but some of the paradox that those people who do things which go to make the phi- the most critical thinking about losopher. the scientific methods are not sci- But, also, these are the very entists at all, but, in fact, are things which go to make the sci- philosophers — or at least they re- entist, those scientists, at least, ceive their income under this label. who make their mark in history. Under less presumptuous occa- (We are not talking about those sions they call themselves posi- tradesmen whose chief occupation tivists or logical empiricists. Posi- is literally to collect, count, and tivists are to philosophy as the classify, and whose understanding tradesmen mentioned above are to of reality is restricted to those science. Both are skilled techni- things which can be kicked and cians. Both excel at operational stimulated in some manner.) For thinking. my part, good scientists are also good philosophers, and vice versa; Systems of Explanation even as philosophy begins with Scientific methodology, there- wonder, so does science. fore, has to do with those tech- Thus, the search for truth and niques which the modern philoso- one’s methodological technique are pher critically examines and the mutually implicative propositions. modern scientist professes to use. And it is for this very reason that They refer to those tools which the critical study of what has come anyone employs on those occasions to be known as “the scientific that he is searching for truth. methods” is most important in They have to do, first of all, with one’s intellectual upbringing. a critical understanding of logic. Thesg methods are not restricted They include some understanding to science, of course, even though of what is meant by “systems-of- some individuals might feel that thought” and “systems-of-explana- things not conventionally identi- tion” insofar as these are em- fied with science are necessarily bodiments of theories, laws, and apart from it. For these individ- descriptions. A critical knowledge uals, philosophy could never be of the nature of facts, hypotheses, construed as having to do with measurement, probability, and so “real” science. And, in final analy- on, also is included among the sis this is more a semantic prob- scientific methods. ===== PAGE 58 ===== 56 THE FREEMAN June Thus, if we define a “system- From the diagram below, it is of-thought” as a coherent, orderly necessarily implied that the sci- arrangement of ideas or beliefs entific methods can be thought of regarding some given subject, and as epistemological tools which a “system-of-explanation” as the have as their primary object the physical explication of this system- production of true systems-of-ex- of-thought, then the point of planation. These are the entities epistemological significance in- we can lay hold of, talk about, and volved here can be graphically pre- hone down to an extremely criti- sented in the following manner. cal, highly discriminatory edge. THE SCIENTIFIC. METHODS a Theory of Probability, the free will problem, and moral responsibility Mill's Canons Controlled experiments Qualitative and Quantitative analysis Fundamental \. = — measurement —~— Necessary and {The search for true | == sufficient conditions syst | X — or L ystems-of-explanation Iori Definitions — £4 Lo 3 > ~~ Laws Te SN Hypotheses Classifications Descriptive Te Logic Statements (validity, deduction, Analogies induction, ambiguity, Facts vagueness, etc.) (observation, percepts, concept formation, etc.) ===== PAGE 59 ===== 1960 ON THE SCIENTIFIC METHODS 57 After all, this is what the mind is Our Contemptuous Sophistication for — to reason. Not sloppily, and Now we are cognizant, of not with dull tools, but with the course, that we live in an age and best and sharpest tools one pos- a climate-of-opinion which rebels sesses. at this sort of procedure. Any at- It is my position that knowl- tempt to reach the minds of the edge may be viewed as a series of young cynics of our time is met “systems-of-explanation,” and that only with a kind of contemptuous these systems are the product not sophistication. In terms of intel- only of science but of anything lectual growth, they are like the that man thinks and talks about. young boy who quit learning be- The real issue in anything is, cause he thought he knew all there What is the truth? To approach was to know. And as the boy grew this we, as human beings, most older, the more sophisticated he of the time employ signs of some became, until finally no one could sort, normally words. Therefore, tell him anything. He knew so in any discourse which is being little, he knew it all. presented to us as truth, the pri- Even in science, which boasts mary task is to look for a con- of having an open mind, many bi- sistent system-of-explanation, and, ologists will at one time say, “We secondly, the empirical facts — di- can never know what life is,” and, rectly or indirectly obtained — and at another time say — with wide- which would make the propositions eyed innocence, ‘There is no life in that system true. Thus, ideas after death.” and facts go together in that In one case they admit they do “Gedanken ohne Inhalt sind leer, not know what “life” is, yet, are Anschauungen ohne Begriffe sind quite willing to assume they do in blind.” And this is as true for the next case. That these biolo- science as it is for those systems gists are materialists is obvious. dealing with religion, aesthetics, But it is also true that, through politics, philosophy, or anything the history of mankind, material- else. ism has always been the enemy of —_— truth. 3 $a 1 . . . . Kant, Immanuel. Kritik der reinen Yet, it is often said that we live Vernunft. Berlin: Mayer and Muller, . . 1s ys 1889. p. 100. “Thoughts without content 1 2 materialistic age. And cer- are empty, intuitions without concepts tainly no one would question the are blind,” where intuition means per- truth of this. For no other ex- ception, sensibility, or senses. Thus, Kant . ‘ subsequently states, “the understanding planation can better account for cannot see, the senses cannot think.” the success in this country of such ===== PAGE 60 ===== 58 THE FREEMAN June materialistic philosophies as posi- ' going into the armed services. tivism, pragmatism, and their po- This fact, among several possible litical manifestation — totalitarian facts, certifies the extent that we liberalism. (Liberalism, as Chodo- have intellectually alienated our- rov so succinetly puts it, is simply selves from the teachings of tradi- socialism without Marx.) tional philosophy. It marks the ex- That this type of philosophy tent that we have divorced our- has infected our educational and selves from norms and values — political institutions is also self- and truth. evident. One merely has to read So it is for these reasons, and various campus newspapers, text- many others, that we have em- books, “progress” reports, and phasized here the point of getting look at various showcases to ob- the truth. As human beings, as serve the political and philosophi- communicating individuals, we cal slant which is presented. In normally proceed in our search for many states today genuine politi- truth only by the production of cal liberty does not, in fact, exist. some system-of-explanation and Calling the same political philoso- the necessary facts to back up this phy by two different party labels system. For my part, if we are not does not alter the identity of that given both of these, the chances philosophy. “Bi-partisanship” is are excellent that we are being the order of the day. propagandized for a given purpose. In short, any alternative phil- osophy which insists that tradi- Emphasis on the Individual tional norms and standards be Thus, it is now clear why we maintained is described by the ma- have chosen to emphasize this terialists as being “old-fashioned,” methodological aspect of science. “reactionary,” ‘extreme right Our interest has been in terms of wing,” or just plain “antiliberal.”” its broader implications. Critical In fact, to be concerned more thinking applies itself to all areas about the welfare of one’s own of human endeavor. We are con- country — as opposed to some other cerned especially with the task of country —is to leave ourselves making human beings more hu- open to smear and intimidation by man. This necessarily implies that the political liberals. we are concerned with people not Indeed, materialistic philosophy as a group — which is a sheer fic- has been so successful that, as a tion — but as individuals unique in consequence, patriotism actually every way. has to be taught to young people Our primary concern has been ===== PAGE 61 ===== 1960 ON THE SCIENTIFIC METHODS 59 to explicate a methodological basis somewhat wearily, “Why all this of truthful knowledge. Because it talk about truth? Of course we are is apparently only through this interested in the truth, but we have basis that human beings come to to live, too; we must earn a living acquire some knowledge of norms and get along with other people and values, some knowledge of our (togetherness),” and so on. But duties and responsibilities, and, these remarks merely reflect that most important, some knowledge point of view I spoke about earlier, of morality. namely, that the pursuit of truth For my part, it is as Sigwart is most impractical — the general says —that the principles of idea being that we ought to stop methodology ultimately point to dreaming, wake up to the facts of the idea of a moral God; and that life, and “live modern,” as it were. this God can only be more defi- nitely apprehended by means of The Ideal Is Practical these principles which forever Again, that this cynicism is the stand before our thought as the fashionable philosophy of our age purpose for which they exist.* we do not deny. But also, that it The form of truth does not vary has failed miserably is an empiri- from discipline to discipline; it is cal fact. So what may appear prac- only the subject matter that var- tical to some people may not be ies. In final analysis, truth is one, practical at all. And what may ap- not many. There are not “truths”; pear most impractical may, in final there is only truth. analysis, be the most practical In conclusion, we now recognize thing there is. Even so, we might that the popular phrase known as reply with Hegel when he was “the scientific methods” is really a speaking of the earlier cynics that misnomer, and that it might be they are, “generally speaking, more significantly called “general nothing more than swinish beg- methodology for approaching the gars, who found their satisfaction truth.” And we recognize, also, in the insolence which they showed that this methodology does not be- to others.” long to science alone. Rather, it But more than this, it is these belongs to any, and all, disciplines very exhortations which mark the where truth is the goal. stampede away from personal re- At this point, someone may ask ———— - 5 Hegel, Georg W. F, Lectures on the 4 Sigwart, Christoph, Logic, tr. by H. History of Philosophy, tr. by E. S. Hal- Dendy. London: Swan Sonnenschein and dane. London: Routledge and Kegan Company, 1895, Vol. II, p. 648. Paul, Ltd., 1955. Vol. I, pp. 486-487. ===== PAGE 62 ===== 60 THE FREEMAN June sponsibility and a philosophy of what constitutes good and bad life which has some semblance of moral and ethical judgments. And morality about it. They mark the the point is that no one would prevalance of agnosticism, cyni- want these basic notions of any- cism, and, in general, intellectual thing less than the purest form. nihilism. Indeed, they should be of the The problem, as always, is strongest and most durable fiber fundamentally a philosophical one, obtainable — the most perfect, the ergo, our interest in truth and our ideal. emphasis upon methodology. For It is in this sense, therefore, that system by means of which that Plato suggests we should one directs his behavior — that is, teach our youth to love but one one’s very own philosophy of life form only —the pure form; and — ought to be truth-oriented. And soon they will see that the beauty the truth-value of any given phi- of one form is analogous to the losophy of life is measured only in beauty of another. And then, if terms of the criticalness of one’s beauty of form in general is methodology. their pursuit, how foolish they For my part, the early period would be not to recognize that the of our life — our youth —is the beauty in every form is one and most important. It is here where the same — the beauty of truth.’ « we receive our basic notions of 6 Plato, op. cit. Vol. I, p. 334. Organized Individuality IN ORDER TO FREE the fiction of the sovereign State —in other words, the whims of those who manipulate it — from every whole- some restriction, all socio-political movements tending in this direction invariably try to cut the ground from under the re- ligions. For, in order to turn the individual into a function of the State, his dependence on anything beside the State must be taken from him . . . The individual who is not anchored in God can offer no resistance on his own resources to the physical and moral * blandishments of the world . . . Registance to the organized mass can be effected only by the man who is as well organized in his individuality as the mass itself. CARL G. JUNG, The Undiscovered Self ===== PAGE 63 ===== A REVIEWER'S NOTEBOOK JOHN CHAMBERLAIN Lament for a Poet RALPH DE TOLEDANO’S Lament for the Rubaiyat, that the attempt to a Generation (Farrar, Straus and go too deeply into ultimates is Cudahy, 272 pp., $3.95), a spiritual like making progress through a odyssey written with warmth, revolving door. When Ralph de poetry, and eloquence, is a token Toledano is against, he is perfectly document of the times. It begins clear. The story of his break with in the world of the Popular Front, the Communists in the days of the when liberals thought they could Moscow trials and the Hitler- make common cause with Com- Stalin Pact, a story that is told munists, and it ends in a curious with sympathetic understanding preoccupation with the problem for those who found it difficult to of what (or who) constitutes an escape the clutch of a vision, is a acceptable ally in the battle document to place on the shelf against the inroads of the Coer- alongside Freda Utley’s similar cive State. It laments the lack of The Dream We Lost. Mr. de Tole- “program and certainty” among dano couldn't stomach the com- conservatives — but, aside from munist belief that anything is what must be taken as a plea for moral that helps the Revolution. universal religious conversion, it Being against communist morals offers no particular program of its did not mean, at the time, that own. There is hope expressed that de Toledano was against socialist Richard Nixon will turn out to be economics. It was not until after the “American Disraeli” — but one he had laid aside his U. S. Army searches the text in vain for what uniform in late 1945 that he came an American Disraeli might be ex- to grips with the problem of try- pected to do. ing to combine collectivist eco- Reading Mr. - de Toledano, I nomic arrangements with the an- found myself carried away by his cient freedoms that are the eternal warmth and sincerity. But after hunger of man. Taking part in a laying the book aside I had the series of seminars held to discuss feeling that is so well expressed in the “future of democratic social- 61 ===== PAGE 64 ===== 62 THE FREEMAN June ism,” de Toledano discovered that dom, but accepting the premise his fellow laborites and socialists that freedom is the natural desire didn’t really believe that freedom of mankind, they had let simple could survive a rigorous attempt logic take the conversations from to make “all economic activity there. mesh.” Certain questions carried their own answers. Strikes? Under The Question of Faith socialism wouldn’t a strike be con- At this midway spot in his book, sidered a blow against the State? however, de Toledano departs from Collective bargaining? But what any dependence on what he might would be the meaning of bargain- call “mere logic.” As he walks the ing in a world where higher wages via dolorosa from 1948 on he is and shorter hours, duly signed for looking, not “merely” for freedom, in the agreement, must collide with but for a sign from the cosmos a plan already laid down? Either that freedom has other-worldly the bargaining agreement would sanction. Mr. de Toledano was ab- force a new plan, or it would be sorbed by the Hiss-Chambers case, bargaining for “advisory” pur- which he covered for his magazine, poses only, with the ultimate de- Newsweek. Part of his absorption cision on wages and hours still re- derived from the unfolding of maining in the hands of a na- sinister spy work by agents of the tional board. Soviet, but as de Toledano listened Planning, so de Toledano told to the testimony of Whittaker himself and his fellow disputants, Chambers he became less and less must lead to compelled labor serv- interested in Chambers, the ex- ice and to dictated consumption — Communist, and more and more in- and ultimately to silencing any terested in Chambers, the religious journalist or book writer or public Quaker. speaker who threatened to be per- Chambers was the catalyst that suasive enough to cause a rebel- led to a preoccupation with the lion against the planners. In reach- question of faith. In a penultimate ing this conclusion de Toledano chapter, “The Experience of God,” found himself in agreement with de Toledano tells of “hearing the Hayek’s Road to Serfdom; and he Voice that is no voice,” of being notes that the records of the semi- touched by a fleeting visitation of nars in which he participated grace that “cannot really be put might have served as an appendix into words.” And having experi- to that volume. The seminars had enced his ‘‘Damascene” moment, not talked about the value of free- de Toledano is suddenly impatient ===== PAGE 65 ===== 1960 LAMENT FOR A POET 63 with all his new-found allies in over to the State) he found “many the conservative camp. doors” closed to him. But his de- Personally, I have no quarrel fection to the camp of the con- with de Toledano for insisting that servatives did not provide any freedom must be grounded in a open sesame to “program and cer- metaphysic which has the force tainty.” The conservatives demon- of a religious illumination. I have strated ‘historical peevishness.” never “heard a Voice that is no They had their “King Charles’ voice,” but I have the intuition that heads,” their habit of dispersing human life is sacred, and that my their energies in futile “opposition rights as a sacred entity depend to public education, or to govern- less on Congress than on the na- ment construction of highways.” tural law which Congress should They got lost in ‘“‘antifluoridation, be at pains to discern. My own be- the notion that Justice Frankfur- lief in God is founded on a cer- ter headed the nation’s ‘secret gov- tainty that a structured universe ernment,” mental health in Alaska, which shows purpose at work can- the abolition of the income tax, not be interpreted as a big, bloom- ete.” All of this seemed somewhat ing accident. And the very idea of negative to de Toledano, who was purpose implies freedom. But if I looking for something more in- can join with de Toledano in his spiring in his list of political and feeling that individual rights must social priorities than a resound- have a sanction beyond mere ing battle over the fluoridation of whimsical preference, I cannot fol- the water supply of New York low him in his rigorous separation City. of sheep from goats in the con- Since I have my own list of servative — or libertarian — camp. priorities in which the question of At times he even seems to be tell- fluoridation ranks considerably ing us that salvation depends on lower than, say, the coercion by one public figure, the Quaker, the State of farmers who object to Richard Nixon, which is assuredly compulsory crop limitation, I can an ‘indispensable man” theory sympathize with Mr. de Toledano’s that Nixon himself would reject. own peevishness against “histori- cal peevishness.” But when he im- Unorganized Conservatism plies that a whole host of his com- When de Toledano broke with rades-in-arms (he lists Frank American liberalism (he could not Chodorov, Frank S. Meyer, For- abide the modern “liberal’s” desire rest Davis, Russell Kirk, William to solve everything by turning it F. Buckley, James Burnham, and ===== PAGE 66 ===== 64 THE FREEMAN June this reviewer among them) makes as a writer is to deal with politics no relevant contact with the con- and social affairs in terms of temporary world because of alleged analysis, is its implied contempt lack of “program and certainty,” for economists and political scien- he is surely way off base. He seems tists as such. Mr. de Toledano is intent on scoring off Chodorov and quite right in arguing that econ- Meyer and the rest because they omists and political scientists must are not unduly preoccupied with come to terms with the universe as problems of religion in their writ- a condition of understanding the ings. But some of the men he relation of their own specialties names don’t feel adequate to a pro- to the scheme of things entire. But longed discussion of the faith that one cannot forever be discussing animates their programmatic the universe when one is talking thrusts. Mr. de Toledano talks of about union coercions, or the sepa- ‘““the significance of Nixon’s ration of the powers, or the effect Quaker roots,” and he tells of see- of the progressive income tax on ing “in Whittaker Chambers and investment. Faith must sometimes his family that quality of faith and be taken on faith. serenity which had warmed me as Mr. de Toledano is afraid that a boy.” He says nothing on the both East and West are moving other hand, of Frank Chodorov’'s down different roads to the same essay, “A Jew Comes to God.” He goal, “toward a world neither capi- says nothing of William Buckley’s talist nor socialist —a world in Catholicism, or Frank Meyer's which power resides in those who quest for a “non-utilitarian” sanc- control the means of production tion for freedom. but do not own them.” He counsels Mr. de Toledano is a poet, and the “Disraelian approach” to stem- he has the poet’s delight in a ming the “wave of the future,” and phraseology that must seem mysti- calls for “dikes, breakwaters, and cal to some people. Without criti- sand walls” to keep the wave from cizing his preferences, one must drowning us. But this is metaphor. call to his attention that it does What dikes, what breakwaters, not necessarily imply a mean spirit what sand walls? Mr. de Toledano, when a writer on economics or in lamenting his generation’s lack politics uses the language of logic of faith, should also lament its rather than the language of meta- lack of specificity. It is a lack to phor. The main defect of Mr. de which he should turn his attention Toledano’s book, as it must seem now that his own problem of faith to a reader whose own preference is solved. re ===== PAGE 67 ===== EN == 1/5 TFIE THINKER BERTON BRALEY Back of the beating hammer Py which the steel is wrought, Back of the workshop’s clamor The seeker may find the Thought — The Thought that is ever master Of iron and steam and steel, That rises above disaster And tramples it under heel! The drudge may fret and tinker Or labor with lusty blows, But back of him stands the Thinker, The clear-eyed man who knows; For into each plow or saber, Each piece and part and whole, Must go the Brains of Labor, Which gives the work a soul! Back of the motors humming, Back of the bells that sing, Back of the hammers drumming, Back of the cranes that swing, There is the eye which scans them Watching through stress and strain, There is the Mind which plans them— Back of the brawn, the Brain! Might of the roaring boiler, Force of the engine’s thrust, Strength of the sweating toiler — Greatly in these we trust. But back of them stands the Schemer, The Thinker who drives things through; Back of the Job — the Dreamer Who's making the dream come true! 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