WEBVTT NOTE Peace in the Middle East: Empire, Oil, and the Reshaping of the Middle East After World War I 1 00:00:00.000 --> 00:00:06.320 In discussing the settlement of international issues after the First World War, I think context is pretty much everything. 2 00:00:06.320 --> 00:00:19.960 Our understanding of the Middle East must, it seems to me, fit into the larger context of what historians call the New Imperialism carried out by the West from the 1860s to World War I. 3 00:00:19.960 --> 00:00:28.080 The New Imperialism generally started with individuals on the ground who represented particular business or other interests, 4 00:00:28.080 --> 00:00:32.680 and it called for the support of their governments when their security was threatened in these 5 00:00:32.680 --> 00:00:35.120 faraway places. 6 00:00:35.120 --> 00:00:39.120 The European governments in question then, or the related government, would then intervene 7 00:00:39.120 --> 00:00:45.440 militarily in the situation and plant the flag to protect its nationals or to restore 8 00:00:45.440 --> 00:00:47.480 order. 9 00:00:47.480 --> 00:00:52.880 Especially in the conquests of more modernized regions, the Western power might take advantage 10 00:00:52.880 --> 00:01:18.720 The financial interests working hand-in-glove with the growing bureaucratic state not only 11 00:01:18.720 --> 00:01:24.720 are really welcomed, but pushed for policies of strong economic intervention, both at home and in the colonies, 12 00:01:24.720 --> 00:01:30.720 since their influence and power depended on the manipulation of the state's resources. 13 00:01:30.720 --> 00:01:35.720 For their own part, the great international banks that increasingly stood behind this process 14 00:01:35.720 --> 00:01:42.720 began to develop very, very complicated strategies for imperialism by the last years of the 19th century. 15 00:01:42.720 --> 00:01:54.720 In connection with the revolutions that broke out in a number of countries just after the turn of the 19th century, so Russia, 1905, Persia, 1905, Ottoman, Turkey, 1908, etc., etc., 16 00:01:54.720 --> 00:02:06.720 these global brains trusts began to work out elaborate schemes for pooling resourcesividing the markets in the conquered areas 17 00:02:06.720 --> 00:02:14.720 and doing planning on a very vast strategic scale, as in the Chinese consortium loan just before World War I. 18 00:02:14.720 --> 00:02:22.720 These imperializing teams became expert at the public relations of manipulating collectivist nationalism, 19 00:02:22.720 --> 00:02:29.720 both at home and in colonial areas, sometimes using upstart proto-nationalist leaders 20 00:02:29.720 --> 00:02:35.720 to topple older regimes standing in the way and then removing or controlling the new local leader. 21 00:02:35.720 --> 00:02:41.720 leader. Not only did Western bankers and arms makers stand behind the revolts, but they 22 00:02:41.720 --> 00:02:45.900 got in on the ground floor of controlling wealth flows under the new regime, whatever 23 00:02:45.900 --> 00:02:54.720 it turned out to be. So where was the Middle East in all of this? Well, the Ottoman Empire, 24 00:02:54.720 --> 00:02:59.360 which you see pictured up here, it's labeled Turkey, the Ottoman Empire protected a very 25 00:02:59.360 --> 00:03:05.040 large part of the region to some extent and warded off outright conquest from the West 26 00:03:05.040 --> 00:03:10.800 before 1914. So it was in the Middle Eastern states that lay outside Ottoman control where 27 00:03:10.800 --> 00:03:16.960 the new imperialism first struck, that is Egypt and Persia. Egypt had been more or less 28 00:03:16.960 --> 00:03:24.640 independent from the empire, yet the building of the Suez Canal, the British closeness to 29 00:03:24.640 --> 00:03:31.320 Egypt connected with the canal, British loans, and British desires to control the best route 30 00:03:31.320 --> 00:03:38.680 to India. All these factors led to near protectorate status for Egypt. Persia, on the other hand, 31 00:03:38.680 --> 00:03:44.480 an old but surprisingly cohesive state trying to modernize itself, was simply caught between 32 00:03:44.480 --> 00:03:51.760 Russian and British imperialisms and divided in the happy moment of the Triple Entente, 33 00:03:51.760 --> 00:03:58.640 famous for being the predestined allies together, brought together in 1907 so they could fight 34 00:03:58.640 --> 00:04:08.640 Oil enters the picture at this juncture. British oil exploration has been going on in Persia since 1901. 35 00:04:08.640 --> 00:04:15.640 One year after the British and Russians divided Persia into spheres of influence in 1907, 36 00:04:15.640 --> 00:04:19.640 the British discovered there one of the largest oil fields in the world. 37 00:04:19.640 --> 00:04:23.640 The British government immediately helped to organize the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, 38 00:04:23.640 --> 00:04:27.640 a private concern closely tied to the British government. 39 00:04:27.640 --> 00:04:32.920 Meanwhile, that great creature of empire, Winston Churchill, became First Lord of the 40 00:04:32.920 --> 00:04:39.040 Admiralty in 1911 and accelerated an existing program to convert the Royal Navy from coal 41 00:04:39.040 --> 00:04:41.540 power to petroleum. 42 00:04:41.540 --> 00:04:46.980 Anglo-Persian oil company officials argued at this stage that if their company was not 43 00:04:46.980 --> 00:04:53.520 subsidized by the British government, then Royal Dutch Shell or Standard Oil might well 44 00:04:53.520 --> 00:04:56.360 move in to compete. 45 00:04:56.360 --> 00:05:09.360 Churchill was able, just before World War I, to gain parliamentary approval for the British government to buy a controlling share of Anglo-Persian, at the same time that the Navy was finishing its conversion to oil power. 46 00:05:09.360 --> 00:05:16.360 The British government thus became the company's controlling shareholder and its biggest customer. 47 00:05:16.360 --> 00:05:36.360 More generally, the world was shifting to oil as the basis of power production, though it does give one pause to contemplate the possible alternative paths of energy history if petroleum production had not from its infancy relied on aggressive rent-seeking behavior. 48 00:05:36.360 --> 00:05:43.940 Hence, in any case, the great modern oil companies that emerged from World War I, in particular 49 00:05:43.940 --> 00:05:50.520 Royal Dutch Shell under the leadership of Henry Deddening, who took over the company 50 00:05:50.520 --> 00:05:55.960 and brought it into the British fold during World War I and was knighted by the British 51 00:05:55.960 --> 00:06:01.720 during the war. Hence Standard Oil Company and various other branches of the Rockefeller 52 00:06:01.720 --> 00:06:04.480 Empire and some others. 53 00:06:04.480 --> 00:06:09.360 Here indeed is the beginning of that shift in financial power discussed by Rothbard in 54 00:06:09.360 --> 00:06:15.000 the context of the 1930s, a shift in which the Rockefeller interests moved ahead of the 55 00:06:15.000 --> 00:06:17.640 J.P. Morgan Empire. 56 00:06:17.640 --> 00:06:23.880 Indeed the partly state-sponsored increase in the need for oil allowed a whole range 57 00:06:23.880 --> 00:06:32.040 of tycoons, frustrated academics, slick operators, retired admirals, arms merchants and others 58 00:06:32.040 --> 00:06:43.300 To create policy, and in the case of our subject, to shape strategies for Western policies in the Middle East, since that is where the greatest known oil reserves now appear to be. 59 00:06:43.300 --> 00:06:50.400 To clarify, if I'm critical of these freewheeling companies and individuals who shaped Western foreign policies, 60 00:06:50.400 --> 00:06:57.240 it's not because I'm critical of the influence of free market business impacting government decisions. 61 00:06:57.240 --> 00:07:04.720 Rather the opposite, I'm critical because these forces were instrumental in forging the status regimes of the 20th century and beyond. 62 00:07:04.720 --> 00:07:11.680 As historian Gareth Jones somewhat approvingly commented on the British case during the period of World War I, 63 00:07:11.680 --> 00:07:16.400 quote, the assault on laissez-faire was partly led by private industry itself. 64 00:07:16.400 --> 00:07:22.360 One of the most noticeable assaults came from the British oil companies. 65 00:07:22.360 --> 00:07:32.360 The famous British wartime promises that shaped the modern Middle East were very much a part of this world of slick operators, bureaucrats and imperialists. 66 00:07:32.360 --> 00:07:40.360 These promises were briefly as follows, the Hussein-McMahon correspondence from 1915 and 1916. 67 00:07:40.360 --> 00:07:46.060 This amounted to a British promise to support independent Arab governments after the war. 68 00:07:46.060 --> 00:07:56.060 The pivotal Sykes-Picot Agreement of May 1916 divided up the Ottoman Empire after the war, assigning Syria to France and Iraq and Palestine to Britain. 69 00:07:56.060 --> 00:08:05.060 And then the Balfour Declaration of 1917 declared British support for the establishment of a national homeland for Jews in Palestine. 70 00:08:05.060 --> 00:08:12.060 Note that these commitments were mutually exclusive in a variety of ways and certainly impossible to keep. 71 00:08:12.060 --> 00:08:20.560 By the time of the peace conference in Paris, countries lined up to acquire parts of the Ottoman Empire, which was of course on the losing side. 72 00:08:20.560 --> 00:08:36.560 In the queue of those seeking pieces of this particular rock were Italy, Greece, the Arab dynasty of Faisal, Persia, certain Armenian political organizations, France, Britain and some others. 73 00:08:36.560 --> 00:08:44.560 In the end, outside of the newly slimmed-down Turkey, European power became dominant, above all, British power. 74 00:08:47.560 --> 00:08:54.560 Let me focus now on a single issue by looking for a moment at the question of the Mosul boundary, 75 00:08:54.560 --> 00:09:01.560 which was a part of this whole peacemaking process, so it's kind of a microcosm of my point here. 76 00:09:01.560 --> 00:09:13.560 This region on the border of three successor states to the Ottoman Empire and Persia became an important diplomatic issue, but an even more important financial one. 77 00:09:13.560 --> 00:09:24.560 And just to show, let me just point out, this is the region we're talking about in this area. 78 00:09:24.560 --> 00:09:34.560 In other words, it's where Turkey meets Syria, meets Iraq, meets Persia. 79 00:09:34.560 --> 00:09:40.560 So it's a kind of borderland among four different modern countries. 80 00:09:40.560 --> 00:09:43.560 It was all Ottoman Empire except for the Persian part beforehand. 81 00:09:43.560 --> 00:09:49.560 And you'll see here it's called, in this older 19th century map, Kurdistan, 82 00:09:49.560 --> 00:09:52.560 which is just an older way to spell Kurdistan. 83 00:09:52.560 --> 00:10:22.560 and then here we have mountain Nestorians and Nestorians are of course Christians and this is a reference to those Assyrians who lived there and were descendants of the famous Assyrians but had become Christianized so it was they were called here mountain Nestorians so that's the region we're talking about and this map is an older map where you get a better sense of this being not 84 00:10:22.560 --> 00:10:27.560 carved into arbitrary nation-states in the 20th century. 85 00:10:27.560 --> 00:10:36.060 The district named after the city of Mosul, and there's a little plan of the city of Mosul, 86 00:10:36.060 --> 00:10:46.060 and you see also right here, oops, sorry, also here are the ancient ruins of Nineveh within the city. 87 00:10:46.060 --> 00:10:55.260 But this is a modern map of the region to show how those countries come together. 88 00:10:55.260 --> 00:11:00.300 But the district named after Mosul was a villayet or province of the Ottoman Empire, home to 89 00:11:00.300 --> 00:11:06.620 a wide ethnic variety, Arabs, Assyrians, Armenians and others. 90 00:11:06.620 --> 00:11:09.520 The predominant ethnic stock was Kurdish. 91 00:11:09.520 --> 00:11:14.660 These peoples had lived in isolation until the mid-19th century when the Ottomans crushed 92 00:11:14.660 --> 00:11:17.820 to their last resistance to centralized rule. 93 00:11:17.820 --> 00:11:20.020 Still, the Villette of Mosul, especially 94 00:11:20.020 --> 00:11:22.980 the northern section of it, was a remote mountain area, 95 00:11:22.980 --> 00:11:25.780 including some of the least known terrain in the world 96 00:11:25.780 --> 00:11:28.620 from the standpoint of European geographers 97 00:11:28.620 --> 00:11:30.660 by the early 20th century. 98 00:11:30.660 --> 00:11:32.740 There was also the promise of oil. 99 00:11:32.740 --> 00:11:35.060 Famous tar and gas seepages in the area 100 00:11:35.060 --> 00:11:39.420 had attracted serious attention since the 1870s. 101 00:11:39.420 --> 00:11:43.700 Just before World War I, there were positive indications 102 00:11:43.700 --> 00:12:10.700 of a vast oil field close to Kirkuk, just south and east of Mosul, and an American rear admiral, Colby Chester, having visited the region in 1899, smelled oil and returned as a private entrepreneur a few years later to lobby with the Ottoman Sultan for just such an oil concession as British adventurers were negotiating at the same time with Persia. 103 00:12:10.700 --> 00:12:17.340 After much talk between Chester and the Ottomans, suddenly, from offstage, the Anglo-Persian 104 00:12:17.340 --> 00:12:25.700 oil company and some Deutsche Bank suitors appeared in Istanbul, and the famous Red Sultan, 105 00:12:25.700 --> 00:12:33.060 Abdul Hamid, as he was called because of the blood on his hands, surmising the value of 106 00:12:33.060 --> 00:12:38.860 the area, quickly transferred the Mosul province from state ownership to his own private property. 107 00:12:38.860 --> 00:12:43.160 The Sultan was about to sell both to the Germans and the British, but the Young Turk Revolution 108 00:12:43.160 --> 00:12:46.180 of 1908 intervened. 109 00:12:46.180 --> 00:12:52.320 Actually Chester, the Admiral, secured from the new Young Turk regime a promise of future 110 00:12:52.320 --> 00:12:57.720 acquisitions or a future oil concession complete. 111 00:12:57.720 --> 00:13:03.000 But in 1912, the British and the Germans founded the Turkish Petroleum Company, a concern which 112 00:13:03.000 --> 00:13:07.440 went out of business when the First World War started, but which is going to reemerge 113 00:13:07.440 --> 00:13:10.080 after the war. 114 00:13:10.080 --> 00:13:13.760 Once the war began, so did planning for 115 00:13:13.760 --> 00:13:16.960 the post-war settlement, as we've seen, and both the 116 00:13:16.960 --> 00:13:20.480 British and French kept the Mosul border in mind as they 117 00:13:20.480 --> 00:13:24.200 redesigned the region. The Sykes-Pico agreement in 1916 118 00:13:24.200 --> 00:13:27.760 represented for the French not only control over historic Syria 119 00:13:27.760 --> 00:13:30.880 but also the potential for exploitation of Mosul. 120 00:13:30.880 --> 00:13:34.520 Whether the British intended to stick by this promise, the issue 121 00:13:34.520 --> 00:13:42.520 of whether Mosul and its resources would end up in Syria, Iraq or Turkey became more and more disputed as the end of the war approached. 122 00:13:42.520 --> 00:13:49.520 Strangely, just as the war ended, France renounced its claim to the Mosul district in a puzzling move. 123 00:13:49.520 --> 00:14:02.520 Maybe France hoped to keep the whole Sykes-Picot agreement intact by giving away a part of it so that the British would support them in other areas, or maybe so that the British would support them in Europe. 124 00:14:02.520 --> 00:14:13.000 Probably, the French renounced an immediate claim to Mosul because the government was following a complex plan featuring Sir Basil Zaharoff, 125 00:14:13.000 --> 00:14:23.840 international man of mystery, arms merchant extraordinaire, supplier of both sides in World War I, and by the end of the war, an agent of British petroleum interests. 126 00:14:23.840 --> 00:14:40.600 Zaharoff, it seems, induced Clemenceau and other French figures to renounce Mosel so that it would be available to the new, nearly fully British Royal Dutch shell, although he was able to offer the French a share of the profits. 127 00:14:40.600 --> 00:14:49.600 Zaharoff had a good bit of experience in this area as an agent of the Rothschild oil interests in Tsarist Russia earlier in the century. 128 00:14:49.600 --> 00:15:07.800 Moreover, much of the famous arms merchants' activities at the end of the war were directed toward a complex scheme of getting up a bank for the exploitation of Middle Eastern oil, which was actually an international bank, and 45% of which would be owned by the Anglo-Persian oil company. 129 00:15:07.800 --> 00:15:14.560 Connected with these Anglo-French dispositions over the Mosul boundary, 130 00:15:14.560 --> 00:15:22.680 Standard Oil had taken active measures to associate itself with the French oil market and with French oil policy generally. 131 00:15:22.680 --> 00:15:33.320 And so Standard became a kind of standard bearer for the French because that enabled them to edge out the British just a little bit. 132 00:15:33.320 --> 00:15:57.160 To make things more complicated, exciting times followed. In early 1920, Faisal became a king of Syria, made so by a Syrian council, but the allied San Remo Conference confirmed France's control of Syria, and the French then defeated Faisal's forces and expelled him from the country. Then he moved on to become king of Iraq. 133 00:15:57.160 --> 00:16:04.720 The story behind these events, though, is that before the French and British met to conclude the mandate system at San Remo, 134 00:16:04.720 --> 00:16:11.520 the British had offered an oil piece which would appease the French, but which left out the Americans in any form. 135 00:16:11.520 --> 00:16:23.520 So the deal now was Mosul to be split in just in terms of the oil concessions, 75-25 British and French. 136 00:16:23.520 --> 00:16:35.520 It should be mentioned here that the Mosul villae had been promised, in essence, to the Hashimites, to Faisal's family, and had been occupied by the British since late 1918. 137 00:16:35.520 --> 00:16:50.520 So it was now left under Hashimite Iraq as it remains to this day, or in Iraq as it remains to this day, but in reality it was in the hands of the British to be exploited mostly by Sir Henry Dedding of Royal Dutch Shell. 138 00:16:50.520 --> 00:17:20.520 Well, to move through some elements of this paper that are very interesting, another aspect of this that I'll touch on just briefly before I close is that there was a huge war in this area that most Americans are not particularly aware of in 1921-1922 when the Greeks invaded Turkey, the French invaded Turkey, what was left of Turkey, there were parts of Turkey internationalized, 139 00:17:20.520 --> 00:17:30.520 and a huge attack by the Greeks with forces of two or three hundred thousand troops fighting by the middle of 1920. 140 00:17:30.520 --> 00:17:40.520 The Turks armed, they brought a famous general, Mustafa Kemal, the man who later was renamed Ataturk, to the fore. 141 00:17:40.520 --> 00:17:48.520 He was a great general, he beat the Greeks, they withdrew and so there's this huge rumble that happened there. 142 00:17:48.520 --> 00:18:08.520 Behind these events stood oil, that of Mosul in particular, just as the British, well actually the British were financing the Greek attack through Zaharoff and standard oil was in support of the Turkish government. 143 00:18:08.520 --> 00:18:13.520 I have some quotations about that from contemporary times, a lot of contemporaries realize this. 144 00:18:13.520 --> 00:18:38.520 This was eventually settled, although the Mosul boundary was a problem up until 1926 when that was finally settled to the temporary satisfaction, but let me, after moving on from this example, just close the paper with a couple of points here. 145 00:18:38.520 --> 00:18:52.520 First, in the period after World War I, the British and the French maintained strategies in the Middle East which relied on manipulating individuals and groups for political and economic and strategic purposes, and the British surpassed everybody. 146 00:18:52.520 --> 00:19:10.520 Second, by the second decade of the 20th century, the manipulation of wealth in enormous increments involved in the new imperialism had led to new long-range and often extremely callous strategies for the control of investments and market fields. 147 00:19:10.520 --> 00:19:22.520 The not completely adventitious rise of oil to supreme importance in the leading industrial countries led to still more elaboration of such long-range plans. 148 00:19:22.520 --> 00:19:31.520 Third, many of the postwar arrangements could not have been calculated more readily for instability. 149 00:19:31.520 --> 00:19:39.520 If not from all parties, at least on the part of some, the groundwork in this period was laid for certain political manipulation later on, 150 00:19:39.520 --> 00:19:44.920 for later violence and especially for taking advantage of such violence as a foothold for 151 00:19:44.920 --> 00:19:47.760 further stages in strategic planning. 152 00:19:47.760 --> 00:19:53.420 Finally, in a very real sense, all these strategies depended on the division of the region along 153 00:19:53.420 --> 00:19:57.600 fairly precise lines as illustrated in the Mosul boundary. 154 00:19:57.600 --> 00:20:02.680 The post-Ottoman Middle East might have reshaped itself in a variety of ways after the empire 155 00:20:02.680 --> 00:20:04.980 fell if it fell at all. 156 00:20:04.980 --> 00:20:11.100 But the divisions like those imposed worked both toward profit for others and a special 157 00:20:11.100 --> 00:20:14.860 intensification of violence in the modern world. 158 00:20:14.860 --> 00:20:19.800 It is perhaps too much to claim that the whole script for a century's worth of Middle Eastern 159 00:20:19.800 --> 00:20:24.180 affairs was written in the years just after World War I, but I think a rough draft of 160 00:20:24.180 --> 00:20:31.180 it was.