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NOTE 1. Europe at the Dawn of the Modern Era

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Part 1. Europe, England and the New World. Chapter 1. Europe at the Dawn of the Modern

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Era. Until the close of the Middle Ages at the end of the 15th century, the Americas

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remained outside the ken of Western civilization. The Americas had been discovered and settled

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as many as 10,000 years before by tribes crossing over from Asia on what was then a land bridge

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across the Bering Strait. By the late 15th century, one million of these American Indians

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lived north of Mexico alone in diverse cultures and tribes scattered throughout the continent.

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As recently as the end of the 10th century, Norsemen, the great seamen of Scandinavia,

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Spread across the North Atlantic and planted a settlement in Greenland.

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From there, the Viking Leif Erikson explored and settled Vinland, somewhere on the northeast

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coast of North America, about the year AD 1000.

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Norse objects dating from the mid-14th century have been found in North Central America.

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But these sporadic contacts made no imprint on history, for the New World had not yet

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have been brought into any continuing economic or social relation with the Western world.

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Hence, its existence was not even known beyond the narrow circle of those few who, like the

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Norsemen, had actually been there.

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The same holds true for the possibility that French fishermen were already making use of

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the abundantly stocked waters off Newfoundland by the late 15th century.

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In neither case was Europe really made cognizant of the new lands.

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Western Europe during the early Middle Ages was a stagnant and war-torn region burdened

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by feudalism, a hierarchical rule based on assumed and conquered land titles and on the

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virtual enslavement of the peasantry who worked as serfs in support of the ruling caste.

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A great revival during the 11th century inaugurating the High Middle Ages was based upon the rise

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of trade between Italian towns that had remained relatively free of feudal restrictions and

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the commercial centers of the Eastern Mediterranean.

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The revival of industry and trade and the concomitant growth in living standards provided

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the necessary economic base for a flowering of learning and culture.

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The emerging commercial capitalism and growing civilizations soon developed most intensively

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in the city-states of northern Italy, the centers of the vital Mediterranean trade with

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the East.

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It was this international trade that began to break up the isolated, local self-sufficiency

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at subsistence levels that had characterized feudal Western Europe.

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The local feudal manner could no longer be a stagnant, self-sufficient agricultural and

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domestic industry unit if it wished to purchase the products of the Middle East and especially

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of the Orient.

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The Orient furnished luxury goods of all kinds, silks, damasks, jewels, dyes, tropical fruits,

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But its great contribution was spices, the preeminent commodity in Mediterranean trade.

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Spices not only enhanced the taste of food, but also preserved it.

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For in those days, before refrigeration, spices were the only way to preserve food for any

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length of time.

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Their oriental commodities were produced in China, India, Ceylon, or the East Indies,

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and transported by Muslim merchants, Indian and Arab, to the ports of the Middle East

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and the shores of the Eastern Mediterranean where Northern Italian merchants took over

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to transport the goods to Western Europe. Sales were then made, often by German merchants,

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at such places as the Great Fairs, notably the Fairs of Champagne in Northeastern France.

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Thus, pepper, by far the most important of the spices, was largely grown on the Malabar

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coast of India, and from there taken to the Eastern Mediterranean and thence to Europe.

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In exchange for these products from the East, Western Europe exported timber, metals and

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especially woolen textiles, which had become its major commodity for export.

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In the late 11th century, England became the major European supplier of raw wool because

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of its advantages of soil and climate, as well as the advanced scientific management

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of its monastic sheep ranches. The English wool was then exported to Flanders for weaving

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into cloth. The cloth was exchanged for spices at the great fairs of Champagne and then carried

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by the Italian merchants to sell in the Middle East. Three main routes connected the West

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with the Orient. One was a virtually all-sea route from China, India, Malaya, and the rest

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of the Orient to the Red Sea and thence up to Cairo and Alexandria. A second went up

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the Persian Gulf to Baghdad and thence overland to Antioch or to various cities of the Eastern

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and Mediterranean. The third, a northerly route, traveled overland by caravan from North

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China westward to the Caspian and Black Seas. This last route was made possible in the 13th

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century by the establishment of Mongol rule over this vast trading area. In all of this

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trade, the northern Italians, as we have indicated, were predominant in Europe. They were the

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The Great Merchants, Shippers and Bankers of the Western World

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In the mid-14th century, a severe blow was struck at this vital pattern of European trade

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with the Orient.

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This blow was the general collapse of Mongol rule in Asia.

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The end of Mongol rule in Persia destroyed the freedom of Italian, especially Genoese,

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traders in that critical terminus of the overland route.

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And the liquidation of Mongol rule in China ended Mongol friendliness to Western trade,

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which had permitted both commerce and cultural contact with the West.

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Thereafter, traditional Chinese suspicion of foreigners reasserted itself.

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The consequent forced closing of the overland route doubled the price of silks in Europe.

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Ordinarily, one would have expected the Mongol collapse and the closing of the overland route

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to spur a search by northern Italians, especially the Genoese, for an all-sea route to the Orient.

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Indeed, the Genoese captains by the late 13th and early 14th centuries had already sailed through

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the Strait of Gibraltar and south along the western coast of Africa in search of Newspice

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routes and had already discovered the Canary and Madeira Islands. But a cataclysmic set of

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changes at the turn of the 14th century was to divert attention from such sea exploration

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and drastically alter the pattern of European production and trade.

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The expansion of medieval production and trade in the concomitant cultural progress of Europe

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came to an abrupt halt at the beginning of the 14th century.

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As wealth and capital continued to accumulate in Western Europe from the 11th century on,

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this growing wealth provided great temptations to power, to seize and divert that wealth

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for its own non-productive, indeed anti-productive purposes.

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This power loomed in the emerging nation states of Western Europe, particularly in France

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and England, which set about to confiscate and drain off the wealth of society for the

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needs and demands of the emerging state. Internally, the state siphoned off the wealth to nurture

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an increasingly elaborate and expensive state apparatus. Externally, the state used the

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wealth in expensive wars to advance its dynastic power and plunder. Furthermore, the state

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Therefore, the states increasingly regulated and intervened in, as well as taxed, the market economy of Europe.

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The several nascent states of the modern era ruptured the harmonious and cosmopolitan social and economic relations of medieval Europe.

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A unity in free market relations was sundered and ravaged by the imposed violence and plunder of the governments of the new nation states.

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Specifically, the new policy of statism of England and France at the beginning of the

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14th century involved first the immediate expulsion and confiscation of the wealth of

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Jewish merchants, Italian bankers and vital independent financial institutions such as

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the Crucial Fairs of Champagne.

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For the longer run, the monies necessary to support the state apparatus and army were

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were derived from privileges and monopolies granted by governments to associations of merchants

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and craftsmen who aided in the collection of taxes, in return for the assurance of profits

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by excluding native and foreign competitors.

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The consumer was completely sacrificed to that producer who proved the best help in

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the collection of taxes, and incentives for initiative, inexpensiveness of product and

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and technical progress were destroyed.

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Detailed regulations and controls were established by government-privileged guilds to assure

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the collection of taxes and to prevent competition from more efficient producers within and without

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the guild monopoly.

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As a result of the growth and development of warfare, the state apparatus, monopoly

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and Taxation, the 14th and 15th centuries in Europe were marked by stagnation, depression,

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and even retrogression.

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Not only were there no further expansion in the scope of international trade and no increase

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in the volume of commerce, but this trade was forced to take far different directions.

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The commercial centers of Italy, the northern cities, remained relatively free of restrictions

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of monopoly and the state apparatus, and Italian capitalists now sought a commerce free from

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control by the regulations and taxation of governments.

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The crucial problem of the capitalists was the loss of their overland trade route to

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northern France, brought about by the destruction of the great fairs of Champagne by the taxation

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The Italian merchants, therefore, had defined an efficient route to Flanders, the source of European cloth. The only alternative for the carrying of large quantities of goods was the sea, and it was natural for Venice and Genoa to turn to the sea as the best means of transportation from the Mediterranean to Flanders.

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The first Atlantic convoys of ships to Flanders were sent from Venice in Genoa about 1314.

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They sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar and along the Atlantic coast of Europe to

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the English Channel port of Southampton in England, then on to Bruges in Flanders.

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Bruges now became the great centre of Northern European commerce.

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It served as the northern depot of Italian trade, even as it had been the western terminus

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of North Sea and Baltic trade, a trade which now received a great impetus for growth.

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During the Middle Ages, cities were founded along the coast of the Baltic Sea as the German

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people colonized eastward.

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These German cities engaged in trade along the northern German Sea as well as the east

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or Baltic Sea.

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For the mutual defense of their trade, they formed a confederation of cities called the

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Hanseatic League.

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From the Hanseatic western depots, Bruges and the steel yard in London, the trade of

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the League extended through the German and Scandinavian countries to the Slavic countries

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of the eastern Baltic, terminating in the great northern Russian commercial center,

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The Independent Republic of Great Novgorod The trade of the Hansards, or Easterlings,

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from which the English measure of silver, the pound sterling, is derived, as the Hanseatic

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merchants were called, was largely in raw materials and agricultural products.

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The foundation of Hanseatic commerce was its dominance of the Baltic trade in dried and

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and Salted Fish, a necessary part of the European diet because of the scarcity of meat and the

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needs of religious observance. Search for the salt necessary for curing the fish had

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led the Hanseatic traders to Bordeaux on the Atlantic coast of France, the major source

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of salt. Bordeaux wine also accompanied the salt to Northern Europe. The Bordeaux trade

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It increased the importance of England in European commerce as Bordeaux and the province

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of Gascony had been English possessions since the middle of the 12th century.

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For the spices and manufactured goods that the hand swords carried to the Baltic from

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Bruges, they supplied the industrial centers of Western Europe with the dried and salted

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fish of the Baltic, the grain of Prussia and Poland, the timber of Scandinavia, and the

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The furs, wax and honey of the Russian forest. The closest to a luxury product for the hansards

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was the important fur trade. Fur, because of its rarity and beauty, had become a symbol

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of social and political importance. The only form of fur sufficiently inexpensive to be

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available to the masses was hats processed from beaver, the most popular form of headwear.

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The Russian Republic of Great Novgorod built its greatness by controlling the fur trade

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with the Finnish peoples who inhabited the forest of northern Russia.

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And the Hanseatic League controlled the distribution of furs across Europe from Novgorod to the

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steel yard in London.

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Wool, the principal product of English agriculture, entered Hanseatic and Italian trade mainly

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They threw the cloth woven in Flanders. Poundage, the tariff on the export of wool and the import

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of cloth, was the principal tax imposed by the English government in the process of state

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formation. Poundage was permanently established by the 14th century, even though it was contrary

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to the Provisions of Magna Carta. The newly burgeoning state apparatus was maintained

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by this tax on wool exports and the rates increased as England's financial crisis

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of the 14th and 15th century continued to intensify. This continuing crisis was brought

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about by the English government's persistent interventions in overseas wars. To ensure

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To ensure collection of taxes on wool exports, the English government granted a monopoly of the export of wool to a group of merchants drawn from the importing and exporting centers.

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In return for the monopoly profits gained from this privilege, the merchants would enforce and collect the tariffs and insure their payment to the government.

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The Mayor, Constables and Fellowship of the Merchants of the Staple of England received the monopoly of wool export to the continent in the mid-14th century after a succession of ill-starred attempts to grant the monopoly to smaller groups of merchants.

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It was the first lasting organization of English foreign trade monopoly.

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The merchants of the staple proceeded to use their monopoly privilege in the time-honored manner of monopoly, by moving to jack up their selling prices and to lower their buying prices.

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Such procedure ensured their profit, but also eventually crippled the great English wool trade by reducing the demand for wool and by discouraging the production of wool at home.

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But the free market also has a time-honored way of fighting back against restrictions by evading them.

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Despite the restrictions, the free trade in wool persisted in the form of smuggling,

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which the government policy had forced upon the merchants.

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From the late Middle Ages through the 18th century,

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England was not so much a nation of seafarers and shopkeepers as a nation of smugglers.

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Since Flanders was being carefully watched by the merchants of the staple, the Dutch Netherlands became the center of the free trade, the non-taxed trade in smuggled wool, and the Dutch ship captains became the leading carriers and traders in tax-free goods shipped into and out of small harbors along the coast of England.

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When the constitutional procedures of the common law were applied, there could be few convictions for smuggling by juries of ordinary people, who shared in the common interest as sufferers from taxes and monopoly, and hence in the common enthusiasm for smuggling.

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To circumvent the constitutional courts of common law, the prerogative High Court of

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Admiralty was established to absorb the jurisdictions of the maritime courts of the seaports, which

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had administered the traditional sea law and law merchant.

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A tariff on the importation of wines, called tonnage, the measure of a ton of wine, was

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was imposed with the excuse that it would finance the policing of the seas.

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The creation of the offices of Lord Admiral and the High Court of Admiralty increased

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the burdens on commerce, while their activities were used by the government to advance the

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claim of an English monopoly over the English Channel and other neighboring seas.

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Thus, during the 14th and 15th centuries, in place of a universal economic system based

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on international trade, common commercial laws and efficient economic relationships,

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unnatural economies were created on a foundation of violence and political power.

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The purposes were to supply a constantly increasing financial means of support for the civil and

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The Military Apparatus of the State, and to grant special privileges for groups of merchants favored by, and sharing in control of, the State at the expense of the economy and the rest of the population.

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This mercantilist system, having its origins in the rise of sustained warfare and the development

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of the state apparatus, also introduced permanent hostility between countries by its destruction

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of the universal European economy.

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While Western Europe stagnated under the weight of the mercantilism imposed by the apparatuses

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The Italian cities were preeminent not only by reason of their merchants, shippers, and bankers, but also for their advances in the arts and sciences of navigation, in technological inventions and the sciences of astronomy, cartography, and geography.

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In the Middle Ages, the development of geography in Europe had centered in Sicily, where Latin culture had been enriched by classical and Byzantine knowledge, directly by Greek and indirectly by Arab scholars.

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To classical geographical knowledge, summarized in Ptolemy's second century geography, was added knowledge of Africa and India from Arab sources and of East Asia from Italian travelers.

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A leading Italian traveler was Marco Polo, a late 13th century Venetian merchant who had settled as an official in the Mongol capital of Peking and had written the most important book on Asia of the late Middle Ages.

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This new geographic knowledge was incorporated into the scientific charts and maps developed by the cartographers of the northern Italian cities, the most advanced of which was a 1351 map of Laurentian Portolano of Florence.

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The Arab and Jewish scholarship in Spain led, in the latter half of the 14th century, to

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the development of the important Jewish school of geographers on the island of Mallorca,

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which produced the most accurate medieval map, the Catalan Atlas of 1375.

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This atlas had a significant influence on future exploration, both of Africa and of

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Asia.

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Ptolemy's geography had indicated a short circumference of the Earth, making Asia three times nearer Europe than it actually was, and had depicted the African continent as short and connected directly to East Asia, making the Indian Ocean an inland sea.

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In 1410, however, Cardinal Pierre Dali wrote a Maggio Mundi. He indicated that Africa was long and surrounded by water, thus making the Indian Ocean approachable by sea. These works were all to have a profound influence on the explorations seeking the routes to Asia around Africa and across the Atlantic.

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But before the advanced geographical concepts could guide exploration, the necessary ship designs, navigational science, and experience of oceanic sailing needed to be developed.

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The northern Italian merchants had been forced to inaugurate the long Mediterranean-Atlantic

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oceanic route in the early 14th century and thus had added oceanic experience to their

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overall stature as the great seamen of Europe.

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When thereafter the major Atlantic countries, England, France, Spain and Portugal, decided

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In order to create governmental navies, they naturally turned to contract with Italian captains to develop, staff and command these navies.

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The great northern Italian cities of Genoa, Venice, Pisa and Florence were particularly abundant sources of those having experience with the sea.

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Thus, in 1317, Emmanuel Pezzogno of Genoa contracted to command the Portuguese Navy

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as Lord High Admiral and to keep it supplied with twenty experienced Genoese navigators.

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These arrangements were continued as hereditary contracts with the Pezzogno family for two

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centuries.

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In addition to the role that Italian navigators and sailors, astronomers and instrument makers,

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geographers and map makers played in the maritime history of Atlantic Europe, Italians made

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important contributions as ship designers and ship builders.

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The Hanseatic cogs built in the Baltic were efficient ships for carrying bulky cargoes

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in the Hanseatic trade.

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and ship designers maintained this efficiency but revolutionized the ship's maneuverability

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and speed. As a result, during the 15th century, ships became available that could travel long

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distances at a suitable speed on rough oceans. They had large carrying capacities but needed

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only small crews, so that they could remain for a long while at sea without stopping regularly

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to take on provisions. However, as timber supplies in the Mediterranean became increasingly

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scarce, greater reliance was placed upon such ships built and even manned in the Atlantic

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European countries. At the same time that the sailors of the Atlantic countries were

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gaining knowledge and experience from Oceanic voyages, increasingly higher prices of spices

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Researchers in Western Europe encouraged the Atlantic countries to find the gold with which

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to pay for the spices, or to discover better alternative routes to the oriental sources

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of these commodities. Roots were also sought that could bypass the Italian middlemen. Hence,

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when Portuguese explorers began to be sent southward along the African coast, their immediate

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and primary objective was to discover the sources of the gold of West Africa, with which the

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North African Arabs were plentifully supplied.

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From 1419 until his death in 1460, most of the exploration of the 15th century was organized

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by Prince Henry the Navigator, governor of the southern district of Portugal.

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Murray accomplished his exploration with the aid of a court functioning as a veritable

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maritime college, including Genoese captains, Venetian navigators, and Italian and Jewish

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geographers. The Madeira Islands were discovered definitely by 1420 by a Portuguese expedition,

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and one of the first officials sent there by Prince Henry was Bartholomew Perestrella,

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and the Italian and future father-in-law of Christopher Columbus.

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Sugarcane from Sicily was introduced into Madeira and into the Canary Islands being

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settled by Spaniards and these islands soon became an important source of sugar for Europe

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until the establishment of sugar culture in Brazil by the Portuguese in the 16th century.

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These western islands also became an important center for the cultivation of sweet wines.

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During the following generation, numerous expeditions made slow progress down the coast of western Sahara,

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while others discovered and settled the Azores in the North Atlantic.

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In 1441, a few negro slaves were brought back to Portugal,

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Thus beginning the extensive and barbarous slave trade.

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After tropical Africa, 1500 miles from the Strait of Gibraltar, was reached in 1445,

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large numbers of slaves were purchased from the native chiefs of the coastal districts

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and slave stations were constructed by the Portuguese along the West African coast.

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Although the Cape Verde Islands were discovered in 1445 by a Venetian Captain Catamosto,

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the world of Portuguese exploration largely turned to concentration upon commerce in gold

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and local West African pepper as well as to the slave trade for supplying the large feudal

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estates of southern Portugal, which had been granted by the Portuguese government after

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After taking that region from the Moors. During the 1470s, explorations under private

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auspices covered another 2,000 miles along the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. The Spanish,

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based on the Canaries, began to compete with the Portuguese in the Guinea trade and the

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warfare resulting from this rivalry was settled by treaty in 1480. By this treaty, Spain recognized

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Portugal's Prior Rights to Africa and the South Atlantic, and Portugal accepted Spanish

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rights to the Canary Islands and the Western Seas beyond the Azores. Thereupon, and being

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hurried by the rumor of an English expedition to West Africa, Portugal in 1482 commissioned

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voyages to create a strong fort at Elmina in West Africa to defend the trade in gold

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A large colony of Genoese captains, pilots and mapmakers had settled in Lisbon during the late 15th century, and by 1477, Christopher Columbus, 1451-1506, was established in Lisbon as a mapmaker.

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and the Map Maker with his brother Bartholomew.

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After engaging in the sugar trade from Madeira and the African trade for Genoese firms,

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Columbus had gained sufficient experience in oceanic navigation

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to propose a plan for westward voyage to the Orient.

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Columbus had concluded that China and the Orient could easily be reached by sailing westward

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If Asia were really 3,000 miles west of Europe, as the geographers had indicated.

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Contrary to popular myth, the idea that the Earth was round was well known to the educated Europeans of the day.

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The geographical concept of a feasible westward voyage to the Orient received even wider currency in Europe

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when printed editions appeared of Ptolemy in the 1470s, Dali's Imaggio Mundi in 1483 and Marco Polo's Travels in 1485 and Aeneas Silvius' Poppaeus II's Historia Rerum in 1477.

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Columbus was also encouraged in his project by his correspondence with the Florentine scientist Paolo Dalpozzo Toscanelli.

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The Portuguese had meanwhile resumed exploration of Africa south of the equator under the command of Diogo Cao, who discovered the Congo River in 1483.

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Upon Cal's return in 1484, the Portuguese prepared for more vigorous exploratory activity,

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the crown appointing a Junta dos Mathematicos, composed of Bishop Diogo Ortiz and two Jewish

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physicians to decide questions of navigation and exploration.

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Late in 1484, Columbus presented his plans to the Junta for a westward voyage to China

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in China and Japan. However, as Kao was to begin his second expedition, it was hoped

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that he would discover the route to the Indies around Africa, so the junta decided to await

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Kao's return before accepting Columbus's project. Kao promptly extended Portuguese

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exploration by 1,500 miles, reaching Cape Cross in 1486. He also explored the Congo

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In the summer of 1487, an expedition under Bartholomew Diaz was sent to discover the sea route to India. Diaz sailed around the Cape of Good Hope in early 1488, making it clear that an ocean passage to the Indies would soon be found.

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Bawked by Portugal, Columbus had gone to Spain to seek aid for his projected voyage and although

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he was well received, Spain too made no decision on extending its support. Columbus then renewed

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his negotiations with the Portuguese and returned to Lisbon in late 1488. But when Díaz returned

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to Portugal in December 1488 with news of his exciting discovery, Portugal lost interest

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Post in Columbus' plan. Columbus then returned to Spain, meanwhile sending his brother Bartholomew

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to London to present his plan to Henry VII of England. After receiving no encouragement

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in England, Bartholomew Columbus went to the French court in 1490 where he received better

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treatment and remained as a map maker. When the Spanish court rejected his proposal in

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1491, Christopher prepared to join Bartholomew in France, but Columbus was recalled to the

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Spanish court, partly because its conquest of the Moorish Kingdom of Granada was completed

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in January 1492. The agreements between Columbus and the Spanish Crown were completed in April

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1492. They provided for Spanish financing of the bulk of expenses of the voyage as well

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as for naming Columbus Admiral of the Ocean Sea and Governor of any lands that he might

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discover en route. On August 3rd, Columbus departed from Palos in three ships, sailing

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to the Canaries and then westward. Columbus discovered the Bahama Islands on October 12,

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1492 and explored the Greater Antilles, Cuba and Hispaniola. Columbus was convinced that

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But he had discovered the shores of Asia and so christened the natives he found there Indians.

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But despite his error the New World was now to be opened to the ambit of European society.

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Columbus left America in early January 1493, arrived in the Azores in February and reached

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Lisbon early in March. Even though Diaz was busy supervising construction of the ships

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When Columbus presented his report to the Spanish court in mid-March, 1493, it sought

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to protect its claim from Portuguese encroachment. On the basis of the discovery and of the Treaty

305
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In the Treaty of 1480, Spain appealed to the Pope for determination of its rights.

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As a neutral third power, the papacy made a diplomatic award affirming Spain's claim

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to monopoly possession of Columbus' discovery.

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The respective discoveries claimed by Portugal in Africa and Spain in the West were protected

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by drawing a boundary between Spain and Portugal west of the Portuguese Azores. The respective

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routes to the Indies were recognized by limiting the Spanish to the western and southern route

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and the Portuguese to their eastern and southern route around Africa. The Portuguese considered

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the Papal opinions a useful base for negotiation but refused to be bound by them. To gain Portuguese

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In his recognition for its claims, the Spanish government was obliged to make concessions

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to Portugal, and in June of 1494, the Treaty of Tordesillas extended the boundary 270 leagues

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further westward than in the Papal mediation, which had the unintended effect of allowing

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Portugal to control the yet undiscovered coast of Brazil.

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Because the dispute was strictly between Spain and Portugal, the treaty and boundary related

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only to the area that they had explored, and thus did not receive international recognition

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by the other powers until confirmed by effective occupation of the respective claims.

320
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Since the Spanish territorial claim was limited to the west and south of Columbus's discovery,

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that is, the West Indies and Central and South America.

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It did not exclude other states from North America, as witnessed the English, Portuguese

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and French explorations.

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There was conflict only when they approached the West Indies.

325
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Meanwhile, in September 1493, Columbus had sailed again to the West Indies with 1,500

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and the

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the

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the

329
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after exploring the Lesser Antilles, a colony was established in Hispaniola

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to be an agriculturally, self-supporting, mining town that would supply Spain with the

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much-needed gold believed to abound there.

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After further explorations, Columbus departed for Spain in March 1496, leaving his brother

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Bartholomew as governor.

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In March 1496, Henry VII of England granted a patent to John Cabot, a Genoese captain

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and merchant, lately settled in Bristol, England, who had sailed for Venice and Portugal to

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to explore to the west or north, thereby indicating that England would not intervene in Spanish

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or Portuguese colonies. Cabot was granted a monopoly of trade to any lands he might

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discover and claim for the crown, in the profits of which the government would share. And Bristol

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was made a monopoly or staple port for all voyages to or from the newly explored regions.

340
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In May 1497, Cabot and his son Sebastian sailed west from Bristol to Asia. They reached Cape Breton Island and sailed down the Atlantic coast to perhaps the site of Maine.

341
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In the spring of 1498, Cabot went to Lisbon and Seville to hire sailors who had sailed with Gaul, Diaz or Columbus and set sail for Japan and the Spice Islands in May 1498.

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He succeeded in exploring the coast of North America down to the Delaware Bay or the Chesapeake Bay.

343
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Ziao Fernandes, called Labrador, a Portuguese who had advised Cabot, received a Portuguese

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patent for northern and western discoveries and explored Greenland.

345
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From 1501 on, a group of Bristol and Portuguese merchants, including Fernandes, explored North

346
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America under English patents, while several Portuguese, such as the Corte Real brothers,

347
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The Portuguese, however, were concentrating on the voyage to India, around Africa, for which Diaz had spent almost a decade preparing a fleet.

348
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In July 1497, the fleet departed, commanded by Vasco da Gama, and arrived at the Malabar coast of India in May 1498.

349
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of India in May 1498.

350
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It returned to Lisbon in September 1499

351
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with a cargo of pepper and cinnamon.

352
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The Portuguese had finally found

353
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their eastern sea route to India.

354
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Early in 1500, a second expedition under Pedro Cabral

355
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was dispatched to India.

356
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Blown off course, Cabral discovered

357
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and claimed Brazil for Portugal.

358
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In 1501, the Portuguese spices reached Antwerp, which promptly became the major center of spices from Portugal, even as it was then the financial center of Europe.

359
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The Italian merchants were not immediately disturbed at the development of the new spice route, for they considered their competitive position assured by their capital, their commercial ability, and the security of their established routes.

360
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Lacking gold or specialized products, the Portuguese were not able to undersell the Arab and Venetian merchants.

361
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A major Portuguese voyage of 1505 was in fact financed by Genoese, Florentine and South German bankers,

362
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although the complications of bureaucracy led them to provide capital indirectly through investment in future cargos.

363
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Similarly, Italian merchants and bankers in Spain provided the venture capital for exploration and discovery.

364
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In 1495, on the death of Giannato Berardi, who had contracted to fit out 12 ships,

365
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Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine who was manager of the Medici bank at Seville, assumed the contract.

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In succeeding years, Vespucci sailed in Spanish expeditions and then, from 1501 on, sailed in Portuguese voyages to explore Cabral's discovery, Brazil.

367
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Vespucci wrote accounts of his voyages. They were immediately printed and received wide circulation.

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As a result, the map-makers irrevocably attached Amerigo's name to the newly discovered continents.

369
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The succession of the Habsburgs to the Spanish throne in the early 16th century promptly occasioned

370
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investments by South German banking houses in Spanish mines and then in American mines.

371
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The Fugers leased mines in Hispaniola and Mexico, while the Welsers leased Venezuela

372
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for 20 years. However, the Italians, especially the Genoese merchants of Seville, dominated

373
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Spain's American trade during the 16th century, importing gold and tropical products into

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Europe and exporting manufactured goods as well as slaves under contracts or asientos

375
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to America In 1498, 1500, and 1502-04, Columbus made

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two further voyages to America, which he still believed to be part of the East Indies.

377
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He finally reached the American mainland in 1498.

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Explorations of the interior of the mainland were begun in 1513 when Ponce de Leon explored

379
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of Florida and Vasco de Balboa crossed the isthmus of Panama to discover the Pacific Ocean,

380
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which he believed could be easily crossed to reach the Spice Islands and the Orient.

381
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Portuguese entrance into the Spice trade had led to mutual hostility with the Arab and

382
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Indian merchants, for these Muslim traders feared the competition afforded by the new

383
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sea route.

384
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The new route was expected to avoid the heavy expense and taxation that had greatly increased

385
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the cost of the route through the Levant.

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At the same time, the Portuguese feared that they could not compete in the spice trade

387
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for lack of capital, gold or specialized products.

388
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In 1509, the Portuguese defeated a fleet of Arab and Indian Muslims and, under Alfonso

389
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Albuquerque established trading centers at Goa on the Malabar coast and at Malacca in

390
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Malaya. By 1513, Portuguese trade had extended to the East Indian Spice Islands and to Canton

391
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in China. Albuquerque's attacks on Muslim shipping and markets caused a shortage of

392
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of Spices in Alexandria, while the conquest of Egypt in 1517 by the Ottoman Turks temporarily

393
00:47:01.720 --> 00:47:05.400
cut off spice supplies to Venice.

394
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During the second decade of the 16th century, most of the spices for Europe arrived in Portuguese

395
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vessels by way of Cape of Good Hope, and the Venetian merchants were forced to purchase

396
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spices in Lisbon to supply their customers.

397
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Soon, however, Venice reached a trade agreement with the Turks, the spice trade of the Levant returned to normal, and the Levantan trade in spices and Mediterranean goods remained larger and more important during the 16th century than oceanic commerce.

398
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The Venetians bought goods of better quality, while the expenses of long voyages, shipwrecks

399
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and military forces for Portugal and lack of goods for trading raised prices in the

400
00:47:50.560 --> 00:47:52.880
Portuguese trade.

401
00:47:52.880 --> 00:47:57.880
The Spanish finally reached the East Indies in a voyage under the command of Ferdinand

402
00:47:57.880 --> 00:48:03.000
Magellan, a Portuguese mariner who had lived in the East Indies.

403
00:48:03.000 --> 00:48:09.160
Proposing to follow a westward route around South America, Magellan, with a fleet equipped

404
00:48:09.160 --> 00:48:16.300
by capital provided by the Fugers, sailed from Seville in the summer of 1519.

405
00:48:16.300 --> 00:48:22.920
He passed through the Strait of Magellan, separating South America from Tierra del Puego, the following

406
00:48:22.920 --> 00:48:29.600
summer and arrived at the Philippine Islands, where he was killed in a native war in April

407
00:48:29.600 --> 00:48:32.280
1521.

408
00:48:32.280 --> 00:48:39.880
In September 1522, one ship, commanded by Sebastian Delcano, returned to Spain by way

409
00:48:39.880 --> 00:48:46.760
of the Cape of Good Hope and thus became the first to circumnavigate the world.

410
00:48:46.760 --> 00:48:56.720
Meanwhile, in 1519, Hernando Cortes crossed from Cuba to Mexico and by 1521 had conquered

411
00:48:56.720 --> 00:49:03.480
of the Aztec Empire and begun a search for ports for trade with the East Indies.

412
00:49:03.480 --> 00:49:11.080
In 1532, Francisco Pizarro led an expedition to Peru where, after a number of years, the

413
00:49:11.080 --> 00:49:14.440
Inca Empire was conquered.

414
00:49:14.440 --> 00:49:22.320
In 1532, Francisco Pizarro led an expedition to Peru where, after a number of years, the

415
00:49:22.320 --> 00:49:25.820
Inca Empire was conquered.

416
00:49:25.820 --> 00:49:33.500
In 1527, Sebastian Cabot was to lead an expedition over Magellan's route to the East Indies,

417
00:49:33.500 --> 00:49:40.060
but instead explored for gold on the Rio de la Plata in South America.

418
00:49:40.060 --> 00:49:45.820
During the early 1540s, the Spanish explored the southern part of North America.

419
00:49:45.820 --> 00:49:52.420
In 1539, Hernando de Soto landed in Florida from Cuba and traveled along the Gulf Coast

420
00:49:52.420 --> 00:49:57.860
of the Western Lower Mississippi River, which he discovered in 1541.

421
00:49:57.860 --> 00:50:05.740
At the same time, Francisco Vasquez de Cordonado traversed the southwestern part of North America

422
00:50:05.740 --> 00:50:13.220
up to Kansas while expeditions sailed along the Pacific coast of California to Oregon in

423
00:50:13.220 --> 00:50:17.180
1542 and 43.

424
00:50:17.180 --> 00:50:21.260
France too undertook active explorations in the New World.

425
00:50:21.260 --> 00:50:29.340
In 1524, the Florentine captain Giovanni de Verrazano explored virtually the entire east

426
00:50:29.340 --> 00:50:31.900
coast of North America.

427
00:50:31.900 --> 00:50:38.140
A decade later, Jacques Cartier sailed to Newfoundland in 1534.

428
00:50:38.140 --> 00:50:43.400
A second voyage found him exploring the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the St. Lawrence River

429
00:50:43.400 --> 00:50:49.000
in 1535-36, which he thought would lead to China.

430
00:50:49.000 --> 00:50:55.760
A dubious tradition says he named the falls at Montreal La Chine, a bitter gesture indicative

431
00:50:55.760 --> 00:50:59.280
of his failure to reach China.

432
00:50:59.280 --> 00:51:06.820
A colony was established temporarily by Cartier near Quebec in 1541-42, but the Spaniards

433
00:51:06.820 --> 00:51:12.120
were the only ones to establish important settlements in the New World in the first

434
00:51:12.120 --> 00:51:15.240
half of the 16th century.

435
00:51:15.240 --> 00:51:20.800
The pattern of Spanish colonization was based upon conditions in Spain in the late Middle

436
00:51:20.800 --> 00:51:27.800
Ages. In contrast to Europe generally, where aggressions against non-European territories

437
00:51:27.800 --> 00:51:33.800
had been checked by the growth of Turkish power, the Spanish and the English could still

438
00:51:33.800 --> 00:51:41.360
pursue the conquest of lands and peoples against the Spanish Arabs of Granada and the Celts

439
00:51:41.360 --> 00:51:47.160
of Ireland Thus the two major land conquering and colonizing

440
00:51:47.160 --> 00:51:54.880
powers, Spain and England, preceded their respective transatlantic conquest by the conquest

441
00:51:54.880 --> 00:52:02.240
of neighboring peoples, the Moors of Granada, by Spain, in the late 15th century, and the

442
00:52:02.240 --> 00:52:07.720
Irish by the English, particularly during the 16th century.

443
00:52:07.720 --> 00:52:13.720
In these aggressions, both the Spanish and the English not only acquired the skills and

444
00:52:13.720 --> 00:52:21.920
appetites for further violence, but also established the attitudes and policies to be applied to

445
00:52:21.920 --> 00:52:28.500
alien peoples through conquest, extermination, or enslavement.

446
00:52:28.500 --> 00:52:34.400
Due to geographical and political conditions, Spain retained the military spirit of feudalism

447
00:52:34.400 --> 00:52:38.780
for a longer time than other European countries.

448
00:52:38.780 --> 00:52:44.500
The arid climate and the frontier wars with the Muslims caused the Spanish ruling class

449
00:52:44.500 --> 00:52:51.660
to remain essentially horsemen, who in place of agriculture emphasized sheep and cattle

450
00:52:51.660 --> 00:52:58.200
farming, occupations in which horsemen could be utilized and trained for war.

451
00:52:58.200 --> 00:53:04.680
This style of life had a profound influence on Spanish colonization.

452
00:53:04.680 --> 00:53:11.020
The Christian and Muslim farmers conquered by the Spanish nobles were kept in feudal serfdom

453
00:53:11.020 --> 00:53:17.860
to provide foodstuffs for the ruling class, to whom their villages had been granted.

454
00:53:17.860 --> 00:53:22.920
This feudal system, which had been imposed on the conquered lands of Granada and the

455
00:53:22.920 --> 00:53:29.020
in the Canary Islands was then applied to the larger islands of the West Indies and

456
00:53:29.020 --> 00:53:38.020
later to Mexico, Venezuela and Peru. The native villages were granted to Spanish conquistadors

457
00:53:38.020 --> 00:53:44.700
who were to govern them so as to live upon the work of the natives. The hapless natives

458
00:53:44.700 --> 00:53:50.000
were compelled to provide food, cotton and forced labor for building the great cities

459
00:53:50.000 --> 00:53:57.000
The Spanish colonists were the Spanish lived and from which they governed and to work for large mining operations of the Spaniards.

460
00:53:57.000 --> 00:54:13.000
Alongside the agriculture of the Indians, the conquistadors developed the raising of sheep, cattle, horses and mules to provide profits for themselves as well as work and plentiful meat for their keepers.

461
00:54:13.000 --> 00:54:28.000
Generally, the Spanish colonists did not pursue productive work. Instead, they entered government and privileged occupations in which to live from the work of the natives whom they enslaved.

462
00:54:28.000 --> 00:54:50.000
The right to conquer, coercively convert, govern and enslave the natives of the New World was subjected to intense criticism in a series of lectures in 1539 at the University of Salamanca by the great Dominican scholastic philosopher Francisco de Vitoria.

463
00:54:50.000 --> 00:55:03.000
In international law, based upon the natural law insisted Vittoria, the native peoples as well as European peoples have full equality of rights.

464
00:55:03.000 --> 00:55:17.000
No right of conquest by Europeans could result from crimes or errors of the natives, whether they be tyranny, murder, religious differences or rejection of Christianity.

465
00:55:17.000 --> 00:55:40.000
Having grave doubts of the right of the Spaniards to any government of the natives, Vitoria advocated peaceful trade, injustice and impractice, as against conquest, enslavement and political power, whether or not the last mentioned were aimed at individual profit, tax revenue or conversion to Christianity.

466
00:55:40.000 --> 00:55:45.880
Although the Spanish government prohibited further discussion of these questions, the

467
00:55:45.880 --> 00:55:53.680
Vittorial Lectures influenced the new laws of 1542, which gave greater legal protection

468
00:55:53.680 --> 00:55:56.000
to the natives in America.

469
00:55:56.000 --> 00:56:02.400
Nevertheless, there were defenders of imperialism in Spain who rejected international law and

470
00:56:02.400 --> 00:56:09.080
scholastic individualism and returned to the slave theories of the classical authors.

471
00:56:09.080 --> 00:56:15.000
on the Theory of Natural Servitude, that the majority of mankind is inferior and must be

472
00:56:15.000 --> 00:56:21.620
subdued to government by the ruling class, of course in the interest of that majority.

473
00:56:21.620 --> 00:56:28.460
These imperial apologists propose that the natives be taught better morals, be converted

474
00:56:28.460 --> 00:56:34.900
and be introduced to the blessings of economic development by being divided among the conquistadors

475
00:56:34.900 --> 00:56:38.040
for whom they must labor.

476
00:56:38.040 --> 00:56:44.400
The serfdom of the Indians was most strongly and zealously opposed by the Dominican missionary

477
00:56:44.400 --> 00:56:52.240
Bishop Bartolomé de las Casas, tireless in working to influence European public opinion

478
00:56:52.240 --> 00:56:59.640
against the practices of Spanish officials in America. Las Casas argued that all men

479
00:56:59.640 --> 00:57:07.840
must have freedom so that reason, which naturally inclines men to live together in peace, justice

480
00:57:07.840 --> 00:57:11.960
and Cooperation can remain free and unhampered.

481
00:57:13.200 --> 00:57:16.080
Therefore, concluded Las Casas,

482
00:57:16.080 --> 00:57:18.800
even pursuit of the great objective

483
00:57:18.800 --> 00:57:22.360
of conversion to Christianity cannot be used

484
00:57:22.360 --> 00:57:24.060
to violate these rights.

485
00:57:25.240 --> 00:57:28.000
Not only was all slavery evil,

486
00:57:28.000 --> 00:57:30.720
but the natives had a right to live independently

487
00:57:30.720 --> 00:57:32.180
of European government.

488
00:57:32.180 --> 00:57:45.180
The Papacy in 1537 condemned as heretical the concept that natives were not rational men or were naturally inferior persons.

489
00:57:45.180 --> 00:57:55.180
These progressive views were also reflected in the abolition of conquistador feudalism in the New Laws of 1542.

490
00:57:55.180 --> 00:58:04.840
However, this abolition was revoked by the Spanish Crown three years later.

491
00:58:04.840 --> 00:58:10.500
Political control of the Spanish colonies was first exercised by a committee of the

492
00:58:10.500 --> 00:58:17.700
Council of Castile, and then from 1524 by the Council of the Indies.

493
00:58:17.700 --> 00:58:23.320
In the New World, provincial governments were created, with the two most important, Mexico

494
00:58:23.320 --> 00:58:31.600
in Peru, Raise to Status of Vice-Royalties. Economic control of the colonies was vested

495
00:58:31.600 --> 00:58:41.400
in the Casa de Contrastación, instituted in 1503 to license, supervise and tax merchants,

496
00:58:41.400 --> 00:58:49.400
goods and ships engaged in trade in the New World. In 1508, a Bureau of Pilots was established

497
00:58:49.400 --> 00:58:55.400
under the CASA, which advised the government on maritime matters and supervised navigation

498
00:58:55.400 --> 00:59:03.240
and navigators. Its first chief pilot was Amerigo Vespucci. Sebastian Cabot held that

499
00:59:03.240 --> 00:59:09.440
office for about 30 years after transferring from English to Spanish service, as England's

500
00:59:09.440 --> 00:59:17.240
maritime interest had shifted from exploration to the development of a government navy.

501
00:59:17.240 --> 00:59:24.440
The shift of English interest from exploration to naval construction was reflected in 1510

502
00:59:24.440 --> 00:59:29.800
when the English government began to build a shipyard for making vessels for a navy.

503
00:59:29.800 --> 00:59:36.680
In 1512, the Comptroller of the Navy organized an association of pilots that would provide

504
00:59:36.680 --> 00:59:43.800
experienced navigators for the navy in return for privileges in control of English shipping,

505
00:59:43.800 --> 00:59:48.180
which is similar to those granted to the Spanish Bureau of Pilots.

506
00:59:48.180 --> 00:59:54.120
With the controller of the Navy as its first master, that association was chartered as

507
00:59:54.120 --> 00:59:59.360
the Master Wardens and Assistants of the Guild of the Trinity.

508
00:59:59.360 --> 01:00:05.040
The Trinity House Corporation advised the government on maritime affairs and controlled

509
01:00:05.040 --> 01:00:07.880
navigation and seamen.

510
01:00:07.880 --> 01:00:13.480
Just as Spain had made Seville, the staple port to and from which all colonial commerce

511
01:00:13.480 --> 01:00:20.380
was compulsorily channeled, so Bristol was made the staple port for monopolizing English

512
01:00:20.380 --> 01:00:27.080
commerce with the New World. Bristol's experience in colonial trade had begun with the grant

513
01:00:27.080 --> 01:00:33.800
of Dublin as a colony to the merchants of Bristol when England initiated its occupation

514
01:00:33.800 --> 01:00:41.220
of Ireland. That experience was enlarged when Bristol's oceanic trade to the Iberian countries

515
01:00:41.220 --> 01:00:48.740
was extended during the 15th century to the sugar colonies of Madeira and the Canaries.

516
01:00:48.740 --> 01:00:54.660
By artificially depressing the price of wool in England and raising it abroad from the

517
01:00:54.660 --> 01:01:01.540
mid 14th century on, the merchant staplers not only had greatly injured the growth and

518
01:01:01.540 --> 01:01:09.220
export of English wool, but had also unintentionally spurred the establishment of wool and textual

519
01:01:09.220 --> 01:01:19.220
For woolen manufacturers could now buy wool at significantly lower prices than could their competitors abroad.

520
01:01:19.220 --> 01:01:35.220
This rising cloth industry was organized in country districts and villages where it could be free of the restrictions and the excessively high prices and wage rates imposed by the privileged monopolies of the urban guilds.

521
01:01:35.220 --> 01:01:54.220
Furthermore, the merchants of Bristol were now able to bring to England the finer Spanish wool that formed the raw material for the developing manufacture of new drapery, a lighter and less expensive cloth than that woven from the heavier English wool.

522
01:01:54.220 --> 01:02:07.220
Since the technique of manufacture of the new drapery was new, it did not come under the controls and monopolies of the urban guilds, which manufactured the traditional heavy cloth.

523
01:02:07.220 --> 01:02:14.220
The period of peace from the mid-15th century on witnessed a rapid increase in population.

524
01:02:14.220 --> 01:02:22.220
But the rigid cartel restrictions of the urban guilds condemned large numbers to unemployment.

525
01:02:22.220 --> 01:02:31.220
Hence the expansion to the countryside of both the new drapery and the traditional heavy cloth industries of England.

526
01:02:31.220 --> 01:02:47.220
Unburdened by guild regulations on production, prices and labor, the new rural woolen cloth industry was sufficiently elastic to respond to the demands of large-scale export markets for cheap plain cloth

527
01:02:47.220 --> 01:02:53.220
by developing a large-scale organization of production forbidden by the guilds.

528
01:02:53.220 --> 01:03:02.220
From the middle of the 15th century, indeed, there had begun to occur a great transformation of the entire economy of Western Europe.

529
01:03:02.220 --> 01:03:14.220
Stagnation and depression proceeded to give way to economic progress as the state-ridden system of protection and regulation broke apart

530
01:03:14.220 --> 01:03:21.220
and Capital was accumulated and invested outside the controls that had encompassed the economy.

531
01:03:21.220 --> 01:03:35.220
In the Netherlands in particular, a development occurred similar to England's, the rapid emergence of a rural cloth industry free of urban guild and municipal regulations and taxation.

532
01:03:35.220 --> 01:03:42.880
Furthermore, the controls and high taxation of commerce in Bruges drove trade to Antwerp,

533
01:03:42.880 --> 01:03:49.540
where free of hampering legislation, privileges and taxes, business was able to organize itself

534
01:03:49.540 --> 01:03:55.320
on the basis of a new spirit of capitalist progress and economic growth.

535
01:03:55.320 --> 01:04:02.560
For a century, Antwerp now became the commercial capital of Europe, drawing by its freedom

536
01:04:02.560 --> 01:04:32.560
Not only the traditional trades of English wool and cloth, Baltic grain and timber and luxury goods of the Mediterranean, but also the growing trade in spices and sugars of the Indies, East and West, Antwerp became the main center of importation, not only of English wool, but also of English wool and cloth, for woven cloth would be sent to Antwerp for dyeing and finishing. As Henri Perrin has noted,

537
01:04:32.560 --> 01:04:39.560
Never has any other port at any period enjoyed such worldwide importance, because none has

538
01:04:39.560 --> 01:04:47.200
ever been so open to all commerce, and in the full sense of the word, so cosmopolitan.

539
01:04:47.200 --> 01:04:52.960
Antwerp remained faithful to the liberty which had made her fairs so successful in the fifteenth

540
01:04:52.960 --> 01:04:59.200
century. She attracted and welcomed capitalists from all parts of Europe, and as their numbers

541
01:04:59.200 --> 01:05:29.200
The rise of Antwerp, as the great center of European commerce, was complemented by the growth of the

542
01:05:29.200 --> 01:05:35.200
of the Dutch Merchant Marine. For the free-trading Dutch were the major carriers of goods to

543
01:05:35.200 --> 01:05:40.720
and from the unrestricted and progressive port of Antwerp and were as motivated by the

544
01:05:40.720 --> 01:05:48.760
spirit of liberty and capitalism as was Antwerp. During the 15th century, the herring upon which

545
01:05:48.760 --> 01:05:55.800
the Hanseatic trade had been founded migrated from the Baltic to the North Sea and became

546
01:05:55.800 --> 01:06:03.080
From a cornerstone of Dutch commercial development, Holland and Zeeland became the major herring

547
01:06:03.080 --> 01:06:09.280
fisheries of Europe. They improved the techniques of curing the herring and transporting it to

548
01:06:09.280 --> 01:06:16.400
all the ports of Europe, while simultaneously refining the methods of shipbuilding and fishing.

549
01:06:16.400 --> 01:06:21.800
Hence the Dutch were able to compete successfully with the Hanseatic traders in the Baltic,

550
01:06:21.800 --> 01:06:26.640
from the North Sea and the Atlantic to Bordeaux and Lisbon.

551
01:06:26.640 --> 01:06:32.120
Too many historians have fallen under the spell of the interpretation of the late 19th

552
01:06:32.120 --> 01:06:40.160
century German economic historians, for example, Schmoller, Buecher, Ehrenberg, that the development

553
01:06:40.160 --> 01:06:46.800
of a strong centralized nation-state was requisite to the development of capitalism in the early

554
01:06:46.800 --> 01:06:48.600
modern period.

555
01:06:48.600 --> 01:06:55.360
Not only is this thesis refuted by the flourishing of commercial capitalism in the Middle Ages

556
01:06:55.360 --> 01:07:01.760
in the local and non-centralized cities of northern Italy, the Hanseatic League, and

557
01:07:01.760 --> 01:07:08.200
the Fairs of Champagne, not to mention the disastrous economic retrogression imposed

558
01:07:08.200 --> 01:07:14.800
by the burgeoning statism of the fourteenth century, it is also refuted by the outstanding

559
01:07:14.800 --> 01:07:28.800
In the 16th and 17th century, the Dutch came to outstrip the rest of Europe while retaining

560
01:07:28.800 --> 01:07:36.160
medieval local autonomy and issuing state building, mercantilism, government participation

561
01:07:36.160 --> 01:07:39.600
in enterprise and aggressive war.

562
01:07:39.600 --> 01:07:45.260
Despite the rise of rival Dutch shipping, the continued importance of the Hanseatic

563
01:07:45.260 --> 01:07:54.260
League in the economic life of England was indicated by the Treaty of Utrecht, 1474,

564
01:07:54.260 --> 01:07:59.860
which confirmed the trading privileges of the Hansards in England, including the payment

565
01:07:59.860 --> 01:08:04.220
of lower duties than the English merchants paid.

566
01:08:04.220 --> 01:08:12.040
That the accession of the Tudor dynasty to the English throne in 1485 marked the beginning

567
01:08:12.040 --> 01:08:18.060
of a steady growth of the power of the English government.

568
01:08:18.060 --> 01:08:24.140
Medieval forms were transformed by the Tudors into a more efficient and complete machinery

569
01:08:24.140 --> 01:08:32.140
for repression, especially in regulating those economic activities that had achieved prosperity

570
01:08:32.140 --> 01:08:38.140
by freely evading the government's regulations, controls and taxation.

571
01:08:38.140 --> 01:08:44.980
Monopoly rights were granted in 1486 to the Fellowship of the Merchant Adventures of England

572
01:08:44.980 --> 01:08:50.020
in all trade to the Netherlands except in wool.

573
01:08:50.020 --> 01:08:56.620
Especially important was the export of cloth to the finishing and dine centers of the Netherlands.

574
01:08:56.620 --> 01:09:03.060
Furthermore, Navigation Acts restricted to English ships the importations of wines, in

575
01:09:03.060 --> 01:09:09.620
the vain expectation of thus increasing the number of English sailors and ships sufficiently

576
01:09:09.620 --> 01:09:13.580
to develop a strong governmental naval force.

577
01:09:13.580 --> 01:09:20.500
In 1496, the English government negotiated with the government of Netherlands the Great

578
01:09:20.500 --> 01:09:27.500
commercial treaty, Intercursus Magnus, which provided favorable commercial conditions for

579
01:09:27.500 --> 01:09:30.140
English merchants at Antwerp.

580
01:09:30.140 --> 01:09:36.500
The important contribution of the Intercursus Magnus to international law was to recognize

581
01:09:36.500 --> 01:09:42.300
the freedom of English and Dutch fishermen on the high seas, especially on the North

582
01:09:42.300 --> 01:09:47.060
Sea, which had become the major European fishing area.

583
01:09:47.060 --> 01:09:52.480
The fishermen were to be free to fish anywhere and to use the ports of either country in

584
01:09:52.480 --> 01:09:54.620
an emergency.

585
01:09:54.620 --> 01:10:00.660
For a century and a half, the intercursus magnus remained the foundation of Anglo-Dutch

586
01:10:00.660 --> 01:10:03.660
commercial and maritime relations.

587
01:10:03.660 --> 01:10:12.300
However, by an act of 1497, the English government implemented its treaty power to monopolize

588
01:10:12.300 --> 01:10:15.700
and control trade to the other countries.

589
01:10:15.700 --> 01:10:22.420
Specifically, the Act excluded English competitors of the merchant adventurers from the Netherlands

590
01:10:22.420 --> 01:10:28.960
trade by granting that company a monopoly in the trade with Antwerp.

591
01:10:28.960 --> 01:10:35.700
The cloth trade to the Netherlands now became the privileged monopoly of a limited number

592
01:10:35.700 --> 01:10:41.940
of London merchants who came more and more to have the closest fiscal relationships with

593
01:10:41.940 --> 01:10:47.740
The State through loans at favorable terms to the government.

594
01:10:47.740 --> 01:10:53.580
For more effective enforcement of government power under the tutors, executive power was

595
01:10:53.580 --> 01:11:00.460
exercised by a specially selected group of government advisers that, because it met in

596
01:11:00.460 --> 01:11:03.860
secret, was called the Privy Council.

597
01:11:03.860 --> 01:11:11.740
The Privy Council acted by means of fiat proclamations rather than by legislation of parliament.

598
01:11:11.740 --> 01:11:16.940
Federal power was granted to the Court of Star Chamber, a prerogative court that tried

599
01:11:16.940 --> 01:11:22.660
the violations of the proclamations by the mere force and whim of government, rather than

600
01:11:22.660 --> 01:11:29.180
by the traditional common law which guaranteed the rights of the people. Defending the government

601
01:11:29.180 --> 01:11:35.820
from the criticisms of the people, called libels, from conspiracy and riots, that is

602
01:11:35.820 --> 01:11:41.180
any gathering protesting the oppressions of the government, and from infractions of

603
01:11:41.180 --> 01:11:54.180
The Star-Chamber was notorious for the imposition of ruinous fines, cruel imprisonment, whippings, brandings and mutilations of those who came under its aegis.

604
01:11:54.180 --> 01:12:02.180
To aid its work, the Tudor government had set aside the common law prohibition of the use of torture.

605
01:12:02.180 --> 01:12:08.180
The Tudors also introduced the first permanent state military force in England,

606
01:12:08.180 --> 01:12:14.540
in Ireland, as they had established the foundation for a governmental navy. Military force was

607
01:12:14.540 --> 01:12:23.180
most generally used to subject the Irish to English rule. Poining's Law, 1495, which

608
01:12:23.180 --> 01:12:30.180
established the model for the control of colonies by the English government, extended to Ireland

609
01:12:30.180 --> 01:12:37.180
the repressive and absolutist measures current in England, and required all legislation in

610
01:12:37.180 --> 01:12:45.180
of the Irish Parliament to receive prior approval from the Privy Council in England.

611
01:12:45.180 --> 01:13:01.180
When, a century more later, England acquired transatlantic territories and Englishmen fled there to escape the economic effects of mercantilism or the repressions of the Privy Council, the Star Chamber or prerogative will,

612
01:13:01.180 --> 01:13:07.480
The English subjugation and domination of Ireland that furnished the earliest precedents and

613
01:13:07.480 --> 01:13:13.080
models for attempted imperial control of the peoples in America.

614
01:13:13.080 --> 01:13:18.200
During the 16th century, a principal office developed in the Tudor government that would

615
01:13:18.200 --> 01:13:23.880
later have the greatest importance for the English colonies in America.

616
01:13:23.880 --> 01:13:30.020
This was the Secretary of State, a title of Spanish origin, indicating some of the strong

617
01:13:30.020 --> 01:13:34.780
and political and cultural influence derived from England's commercial and diplomatic

618
01:13:34.780 --> 01:13:36.980
relations with Spain.

619
01:13:36.980 --> 01:13:43.380
By 1540, there were two Secretaries of State, each of whom had full authority to act on

620
01:13:43.380 --> 01:13:49.220
a wide range of matters dealing with the King and his officials and the King and foreign

621
01:13:49.220 --> 01:13:50.220
governments.

622
01:13:50.220 --> 01:13:56.060
The Secretaries of State became responsible for the expanding areas that the Privy Council

623
01:13:56.060 --> 01:13:59.060
took under its jurisdiction.

624
01:13:59.060 --> 01:14:05.500
Internal Matters, Internal Government, Taxation and Economic Controls, Leadership of the Houses

625
01:14:05.500 --> 01:14:12.020
of Parliament, Military and Naval Affairs, Foreign Affairs, and finally Colonial Affairs

626
01:14:12.020 --> 01:14:15.420
when England acquired and governed colonies.

627
01:14:15.420 --> 01:14:19.980
During the first half of the 16th century, while the English government was neglecting

628
01:14:19.980 --> 01:14:26.460
the new world for state building and navy building, English fishermen quietly but regularly

629
01:14:26.460 --> 01:14:32.160
They began to enjoy the abundant fishing in the waters off Newfoundland.

630
01:14:32.160 --> 01:14:38.220
Fishing ships put out from west country ports such as Bristol and Plymouth and then sold

631
01:14:38.220 --> 01:14:41.860
the fish in Spain, Portugal and Italy.

632
01:14:41.860 --> 01:14:47.260
On their return, these ships carried the goods of the Mediterranean to Northern Europe.

633
01:14:47.260 --> 01:14:54.220
For, with the decline and cessation in 1532 of the Venetian Flanders fleets that had been

634
01:14:54.220 --> 01:15:00.020
and Calling in Southampton, English merchants imitated the Dutch and themselves carried

635
01:15:00.020 --> 01:15:06.580
the trade of Italy, Spain and Portugal to Antwerp. The Venetian fleets could no longer

636
01:15:06.580 --> 01:15:12.460
compete in the spice and Atlantic trade because of a growing shortage of, and therefore a

637
01:15:12.460 --> 01:15:19.100
high price for, timber in the Adriatic, and because Portuguese aggression against Venice's

638
01:15:19.100 --> 01:15:25.380
and Arab Allies at the ports of the Persian Gulf cut off its spice routes.

639
01:15:25.380 --> 01:15:32.500
Such oceanic voyages, however, were not at this time of interest to the English government,

640
01:15:32.500 --> 01:15:37.800
which was pushing for the building of large ships and the maintenance of fishing fleets

641
01:15:37.800 --> 01:15:44.180
in the nearby North Sea, where the sailors could be regularly and immediately available

642
01:15:44.180 --> 01:15:51.340
to be pressed into the Navy for military adventures in Europe in alliance with Spain.

643
01:15:51.340 --> 01:15:58.900
To this end, a Navigation Act was introduced in 1540 requiring the use of the larger, more

644
01:15:58.900 --> 01:16:04.820
expensive and less efficient ships of the English ship owners and captains instead of

645
01:16:04.820 --> 01:16:08.460
the smaller, less expensive Dutch ships.

646
01:16:08.460 --> 01:16:28.460
However, privileged merchants, such as the merchant adventurers, in trade with Spain or its possessions, for example Spain and the Netherlands, were exempted and could, by employing Dutch shipping, gain a competitive advantage over independent English merchants.

647
01:16:28.460 --> 01:16:46.460
Decreased English participation in the North Sea herring fishery, caused by the greater efficiency of the Dutch as well as by the Reformation, which greatly reduced the religiously based demand for fish in England, greatly alarmed the English government.

648
01:16:46.460 --> 01:17:05.460
To maintain the traditional source of impressment of men into the government's navy, a statute of 1549 imposed upon the English a political abstinence from meat, under penalty of fine, in place of the previous purely religious abstinence.

649
01:17:05.460 --> 01:17:16.460
This intensification of mercantilist policy was accelerated by the intervention of England into the dynastic wars on the continent in the 1540s.

650
01:17:16.460 --> 01:17:27.460
To support its military activity, the English government initiated a series of great debasements of the currency as a hidden form of taxation of the people.

651
01:17:27.460 --> 01:17:37.460
The depreciation of the currency made England's goods cheaper to foreigners who were able to purchase more English goods for the same amount of money.

652
01:17:37.460 --> 01:17:52.460
This taxation by inflation thus called forth an unnatural expansion in the production of the export commodities of wool and cloth, dislocating the economy both in agriculture and in industry.

653
01:17:52.460 --> 01:17:54.220
and in Industry.

654
01:17:54.220 --> 01:18:01.060
By 1550, the great increase in the cost of production brought about by the inflation

655
01:18:01.060 --> 01:18:07.100
caught up with the fall of the foreign exchange rate, thus ending the artificial comparative

656
01:18:07.100 --> 01:18:11.100
advantage causing the increased export of cloth.

657
01:18:11.100 --> 01:18:16.820
The inevitable end to the over-expansion of export industry stimulated by the government's

658
01:18:16.820 --> 01:18:31.820
The debasement in the 1540s resulted in a severe depression, prolonged during the 1550s by further restrictive and monopolizing economic intervention by the government.

659
01:18:31.820 --> 01:18:43.820
Thus, Parliament passed laws to protect the guild industry and to bring the free rural industry under the control of the traditional patterns of regulation and taxation.

660
01:18:43.820 --> 01:18:49.900
At the same time, the merchant adventurers, who were becoming the major tax collectors

661
01:18:49.900 --> 01:18:56.220
and lenders of money to the government, received a more complete monopoly of the export of

662
01:18:56.220 --> 01:18:58.980
cloths to Europe.

663
01:18:58.980 --> 01:19:08.940
The accession of Queen Elizabeth, 1558-1603, was followed by the transformation of piecemeal,

664
01:19:08.940 --> 01:19:18.940
and systematic government interventions into a comprehensive program of restrictions, privileges, and taxes.

665
01:19:18.940 --> 01:19:31.940
Elizabeth's reign brought to culmination the trend to absolutist government, especially noticeable in the exercise of power by the prerogative courts.

666
01:19:31.940 --> 01:19:39.220
By the Statute of Laborers and Apprentices of 1563, Parliament extended to the whole

667
01:19:39.220 --> 01:19:46.700
nation the restrictions that had formerly been limited to the urban guilds.

668
01:19:46.700 --> 01:19:53.180
In order to check and control the free capitalist textile industry based on rural labor, the

669
01:19:53.180 --> 01:20:00.340
government bound rural workers to agricultural labor and extended restrictive seven-year

670
01:20:00.340 --> 01:20:07.240
apprenticeship requirements and maximum wage rates to the rural cloth industry.

671
01:20:07.240 --> 01:20:14.140
In this way, by crippling the free cloth industry, the government moved to confer special privilege

672
01:20:14.140 --> 01:20:21.420
on two powerful groups, the backward urban guilds who were being outcompeted by the free

673
01:20:21.420 --> 01:20:28.020
and progressive rural clothmakers and the quasi-feudal landlords who had been losing

674
01:20:28.020 --> 01:20:32.280
and Workers to the Higher Paying Cloth Industry.

675
01:20:32.280 --> 01:20:39.020
To overcome the protections afforded defendants in common law trials, the punishment for violating

676
01:20:39.020 --> 01:20:46.240
new laws was placed by the Privy Council into the hands of the prerogative courts where

677
01:20:46.240 --> 01:20:52.780
prisoners could be tortured and were deprived of the benefits of trial by jury.

678
01:20:52.780 --> 01:20:59.180
The Court of Star Chamber also developed censorship to control the reading of the people and the

679
01:20:59.180 --> 01:21:06.720
laws of seditious and slanderous libel, to protect the government from criticism.

680
01:21:06.720 --> 01:21:11.860
Under the pressure of the financial crisis and of the control of markets by monopoly

681
01:21:11.860 --> 01:21:18.240
trading companies, the only possible avenue for the export of cloth appeared to be the

682
01:21:18.240 --> 01:21:21.840
opening of new areas of trade.

683
01:21:21.840 --> 01:21:28.240
As a result, there was a resumption of English maritime exploration by the merchants seeking

684
01:21:28.240 --> 01:21:32.540
markets for cloth and sources of raw material.

685
01:21:32.540 --> 01:21:39.700
The most successful of these attempts began in December of 1551 with the formation of

686
01:21:39.700 --> 01:21:47.040
The Mystery and Company of the Merchant Adventurers for Discovery of Regions, Dominions, Islands

687
01:21:47.040 --> 01:21:50.560
and Places Unknown.

688
01:21:50.560 --> 01:21:56.920
To it, Sebastian Cabot, the partner and son of John Cabot and chief pilot of Spain for

689
01:21:56.920 --> 01:22:01.960
30 years, was appointed as governor for life.

690
01:22:01.960 --> 01:22:07.680
After consideration by the Trinity House Corporation, which was empowered to review petitions for

691
01:22:07.680 --> 01:22:13.240
charters of exploration and trade, the company received its charter.

692
01:22:13.240 --> 01:22:19.440
Organized according to Italian practice as a joint stock company, it was named the Russia

693
01:22:19.440 --> 01:22:21.880
or Muscovy Company.

694
01:22:21.880 --> 01:22:30.600
The company received a grant of monopoly in 1553 for all trade with Russia, Central Asia

695
01:22:30.600 --> 01:22:36.680
and Persia through the White Sea port of Archangel.

696
01:22:36.680 --> 01:22:44.360
An expedition to Archangel and Moscow returned in 1554 with permission to sell English cloth

697
01:22:44.360 --> 01:22:50.760
and Purchase Russian Firs, plus the spices transported along the Volga River from Central

698
01:22:50.760 --> 01:22:57.920
Asia and Persia. The descendants and relatives of the founders of the Muscovy Company were

699
01:22:57.920 --> 01:23:05.440
important in later explorations, most of which were conducted under the auspices of the company.

700
01:23:05.440 --> 01:23:11.760
The English also looked to Spanish America as a market for the export of cloth and the

701
01:23:11.760 --> 01:23:17.320
the purchase of raw materials. Although Spain maintained a system of monopoly trade to the

702
01:23:17.320 --> 01:23:24.320
New World, it could not supply large quantities of goods at low prices due to the regulations,

703
01:23:24.320 --> 01:23:31.120
taxes and privileges of the mercantilist system. By the mid-16th century, the silver mines

704
01:23:31.120 --> 01:23:38.120
of Mexico and Peru were not only contributing greatly to a monetary inflation in Europe,

705
01:23:38.120 --> 01:23:44.280
in Europe, but also making the Spanish commerce with America the most valuable part of trans-oceanic

706
01:23:44.280 --> 01:23:45.840
trade.

707
01:23:45.840 --> 01:23:51.720
While Europe had difficulty in selling goods in Asia in exchange for spices and therefore

708
01:23:51.720 --> 01:23:58.480
had to re-export American silver for spices, it could not supply enough manufactured goods

709
01:23:58.480 --> 01:24:05.280
to Spain for purchasing the silver, hampered as it was by the restrictions, monopoly and

710
01:24:05.280 --> 01:24:11.520
and Taxation imposed by the Spanish government. These restrictions and inefficiencies of the

711
01:24:11.520 --> 01:24:18.800
Spanish monopoly greatly encouraged smuggling by ships from other European countries. Large

712
01:24:18.800 --> 01:24:25.060
amounts of manufactured goods were re-exported to the Spanish colonies from the Portuguese

713
01:24:25.060 --> 01:24:31.800
colony of Brazil, which around the middle of the 16th century became, by virtue of the

714
01:24:31.800 --> 01:24:38.800
the absence of restrictions and heavy taxes, the major sugar producing area in the world.

715
01:24:38.800 --> 01:24:45.600
Just as the bullion from America in payment for manufactured goods and loans on the slave

716
01:24:45.600 --> 01:24:52.120
trade from West Africa, through which goods were smuggled to the West Indies by the Genoese,

717
01:24:52.120 --> 01:25:00.280
now made Antwerp the banking capital of Europe, so the sugar trade from Brazil to Portugal

718
01:25:00.280 --> 01:25:07.480
by Jewish Merchants, and From Lisbon to Antwerp by Dutchmen and Portuguese Jews living in

719
01:25:07.480 --> 01:25:14.520
the Netherlands made Antwerp the center of the finest and cheapest sugar refining industry

720
01:25:14.520 --> 01:25:18.240
in 16th century Europe.

721
01:25:18.240 --> 01:25:23.920
The English, like the Portuguese, were able to engage in the illegal trade to the West

722
01:25:23.920 --> 01:25:31.600
Indies at Reduced Risks, because of close diplomatic relations between England and Spain.

723
01:25:31.600 --> 01:25:39.920
In 1562, Sir John Hawkins of Plymouth, after acquiring 300 slaves in West Africa, received

724
01:25:39.920 --> 01:25:48.640
permission to sell them in slave-hungry Hispaniola and to purchase a valuable cargo of sugar.

725
01:25:48.640 --> 01:25:53.640
Hawkins made a second voyage in 1564 to sell English cloth.

726
01:25:53.640 --> 01:25:59.680
In return for a license to trade in the West Indies and promises as to his peaceful trade,

727
01:25:59.680 --> 01:26:06.560
Hawkins offered to aid the Spanish in destroying the colony established in Florida by the French,

728
01:26:06.560 --> 01:26:10.440
who were also the leading pirates in the West Indies.

729
01:26:10.440 --> 01:26:15.080
The Spaniards, however, decided to do this job themselves.

730
01:26:15.080 --> 01:26:23.360
In 1564, a group of French Huguenots under René de Laudanière settled at the mouth

731
01:26:23.360 --> 01:26:30.800
of the St. John's River on the East Coast of Florida, and there constructed Fort Caroline.

732
01:26:30.800 --> 01:26:36.220
The Spaniards, worried about their bullion convoys and the threat of buccaneers and anxious

733
01:26:36.220 --> 01:26:43.440
to enforce their claims of monopoly power over Florida, sent Pedro Menendez de Avilés

734
01:26:43.440 --> 01:26:47.100
from Spain to crush the French.

735
01:26:47.100 --> 01:26:55.100
In 1565 Menendez founded the great base of St. Augustine, the first permanent city in

736
01:26:55.100 --> 01:27:01.200
the Western Hemisphere and 50 miles south of the French settlement.

737
01:27:01.200 --> 01:27:07.020
After a French fleet moving against the Spaniards was wrecked in a storm, Menendez, heavily

738
01:27:07.020 --> 01:27:13.020
outnumbering the French, then marched over land and butchered over two-thirds of the

739
01:27:13.020 --> 01:27:40.020
The Settlement, especially including prisoners, save for a hundred colonists who managed to escape to some French vessels in the harbor. Philip II, King of Spain, rejoiced at the news. Say to him, Menendez, that as for those he has killed, he has done well, and as for those he has spared, they should be sent to the galley, that is, into slavery.

740
01:27:40.020 --> 01:28:02.020
In retaliation, a French nobleman, Dominique de Gourge, outfitted an expedition at his own expense, landed in early 1568 near the fort, now renamed San Mateo, and mobilized many Indians who were happy to take revenge on the hated Menendez.

741
01:28:02.020 --> 01:28:11.020
Gourge now swept down on the Spanish garrison, taking it completely by surprise and conquering it easily.

742
01:28:11.020 --> 01:28:18.020
The entire Spanish force, prisoners again included, was now in turn put to the sword.

743
01:28:18.020 --> 01:28:28.020
Although Menendez himself escaped punishment by being absent in Spain, Gourge was able to enforce poetic justice.

744
01:28:28.020 --> 01:28:33.420
Menendez had hanged several prisoners publicly posting the notice that they were hanging

745
01:28:33.420 --> 01:28:40.420
as Protestants, not as Frenchmen. Now Gorge hanged a score of his prisoners on the same

746
01:28:40.500 --> 01:28:47.500
trees and posted the sign, not as Spaniards, but as liars and murderers.

747
01:28:48.540 --> 01:28:53.560
Due to English intervention into the constitutional and religious struggle of the Netherlands

748
01:28:53.560 --> 01:28:59.960
against Spain, English activity in the West Indies tended more and more toward piracy

749
01:28:59.960 --> 01:29:05.880
against Spanish shipping. The English Free Booters were encouraged in their piratic attacks

750
01:29:05.880 --> 01:29:13.360
by the Crown, which participated in the profits of the plundering voyages. Sir John Hawkins

751
01:29:13.360 --> 01:29:23.360
and his cousin Francis Drake were defeated at Veracruz in 1568, but in 1571 and 1573,

752
01:29:23.360 --> 01:29:32.500
Drake plundered the Spanish silver depots at Panama. In 1577-80, Drake dared to circumnavigate

753
01:29:32.500 --> 01:29:39.000
the globe. He was the first Englishman to challenge the concept of the Pacific Ocean

754
01:29:39.000 --> 01:29:47.180
as a vast Spanish lake. Along the way, Drake plundered Chile and Peru and purchased tons

755
01:29:47.180 --> 01:29:54.940
of Spices in the East Indies. In 1585 Drake returned to the West Indies. On this voyage

756
01:29:54.940 --> 01:30:04.220
his fleet plundered Santo Domingo, Cartagena and St. Augustine. In 1587 he attacked Lisbon

757
01:30:04.220 --> 01:30:11.660
and Cadiz and in 1588 participated in the defeat of the Spanish Armada which had attempted

758
01:30:11.660 --> 01:30:17.860
to Retaliate Against English Attacks. This was a victory that brought to England domination

759
01:30:17.860 --> 01:30:25.120
of the seas. Although the distraction of Spanish bullion would continue to complicate English

760
01:30:25.120 --> 01:30:31.100
colonial activities in the future, the actual settlement of North America was founded on

761
01:30:31.100 --> 01:30:38.540
the search for trade by the Muscovy Company and the extension of land conquest and speculation

762
01:30:38.540 --> 01:30:46.540
from Ireland to America. A staunch defender of monopoly, special privilege and the royal

763
01:30:46.540 --> 01:30:53.700
prerogative, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, after serving as an officer in the War of Extermination

764
01:30:53.700 --> 01:31:02.440
against the Irish, 1566, had proposed to establish English colonies on the confiscated Irish

765
01:31:02.440 --> 01:31:10.280
of British Lands, and was appointed Governor of Southern Ireland in 1569. Gilbert emerged

766
01:31:10.280 --> 01:31:16.080
as the great leader of the feudal quest for a Northwest passage around North America to

767
01:31:16.080 --> 01:31:24.600
the Orient. He published in 1576 his tract in behalf of this search, Discourse of a Discovery

768
01:31:24.600 --> 01:31:35.360
The Muscovy Company, holding a monopoly privilege for exploration and trade in the Atlantic

769
01:31:35.360 --> 01:31:42.520
Ocean, north of London, desired to find a northwest passage, as well as stations for

770
01:31:42.520 --> 01:31:47.940
its whaling fleets for the whale oil used in the manufacture of soap.

771
01:31:47.940 --> 01:31:54.860
The Muscovy Company thereupon licensed Martin Frobisher, a nephew of one of the founders

772
01:31:54.860 --> 01:32:00.860
of the company, to explore Greenland and Labrador in search of a passage.

773
01:32:00.860 --> 01:32:09.660
Frobisher made three fruitless voyages in 1576, 1577, and 1578.

774
01:32:09.660 --> 01:32:17.180
Meanwhile, Gilbert perceived corollary possibilities of power and personal profit by the colonization

775
01:32:17.180 --> 01:32:23.800
of Newfoundland, both in the conquest of its fishing grounds and as a base for search for

776
01:32:23.800 --> 01:32:26.360
a Northwest Passage.

777
01:32:26.360 --> 01:32:32.160
Preparing to petition Queen Elizabeth for a monopoly patent of exploration and colonization

778
01:32:32.160 --> 01:32:40.480
of North America, Gilbert sought the advice of Dr. John Dee, mathematician, magician,

779
01:32:40.480 --> 01:32:45.160
astrologer and mystic advisor to the Queen.

780
01:32:45.160 --> 01:32:52.480
D was much consulted in matters of exploration. To support the petition, D submitted reports

781
01:32:52.480 --> 01:32:58.440
extending previous historical fantasies that the English Crown possessed the God-given

782
01:32:58.440 --> 01:33:05.500
right to North America and to sole ownership of all remotely adjacent seas and to all the

783
01:33:05.500 --> 01:33:11.400
fish therein. Gilbert received the patent for exploration and colonization in North

784
01:33:11.400 --> 01:33:19.400
of America in 1578. Humphrey Gilbert made several preparatory voyages to Newfoundland,

785
01:33:19.400 --> 01:33:25.800
as did his brother Adrian, his half-brother and free-brooder Walter Raleigh, and his associate

786
01:33:25.800 --> 01:33:33.640
John Davis. After further engaging in conquest and colonization in Ireland, Gilbert prepared

787
01:33:33.640 --> 01:33:42.360
During 1582-83, another voyage for western planting in Newfoundland to establish a fishing

788
01:33:42.360 --> 01:33:52.540
colony. He was lost at sea in 1583. In February 1584, Adrian Gilbert and Walter Raleigh were

789
01:33:52.540 --> 01:33:58.600
granted a patent for northwest exploration under which John Davis made three voyages

790
01:33:58.600 --> 01:34:08.640
1585-88, in a vain quest for a Northwest passage, while in the following months of 1584 Humphrey

791
01:34:08.640 --> 01:34:15.040
Gilbert's monopoly patent for North American colonization was renewed in favor of Walter

792
01:34:15.040 --> 01:34:22.200
Raleigh. Sir Walter Raleigh had been inspired by the Reverend Richard Hacklute concerning

793
01:34:22.200 --> 01:34:24.840
in Colonization of the New World.

794
01:34:24.840 --> 01:34:31.840
Hacklute, a friend of his in Gilbert's, had written pay-ons to the idea of English colonization.

795
01:34:31.840 --> 01:34:38.960
Indeed, Raleigh commissioned Hacklute to write Discourse of Western Planting, 1584, to be

796
01:34:38.960 --> 01:34:45.040
submitted to Queen Elizabeth in order to induce her to invest money in their colonization

797
01:34:45.040 --> 01:34:46.640
schemes.

798
01:34:46.640 --> 01:34:52.800
In this work, Hacklute promised virtually every boom to the English establishment, especially

799
01:34:52.800 --> 01:34:59.360
to the merchants and the crown, markets for its products, especially woolens, raw materials

800
01:34:59.360 --> 01:35:06.560
for its purchases, furs, timber and naval stores, outlets for her surplus population

801
01:35:06.560 --> 01:35:12.800
and bases from which to loot Spanish shipping. Sir George Peckham, an associate of Gilbert

802
01:35:12.800 --> 01:35:20.120
and Raleigh wrote in 1583, in support of Gilbert's project, that a Newfoundland colony would

803
01:35:20.120 --> 01:35:27.080
provide a port to increase England's fishing fleet, a supply of valuable furs, and a northwest

804
01:35:27.080 --> 01:35:33.080
passage. But all of Hacklout's and Peckham's propaganda could not induce the Queen to loosen

805
01:35:33.080 --> 01:35:39.360
her purse strings. The products that Peckham and Hacklout expected America to produce,

806
01:35:39.360 --> 01:35:45.280
and the trade with foreign countries that they expected American trade to replace.

807
01:35:45.280 --> 01:35:49.780
These expectations were not arrived at accidentally.

808
01:35:49.780 --> 01:35:55.400
Their program was founded on the experience of the Muscovy Company, which had established

809
01:35:55.400 --> 01:36:01.660
trading post on the inhospitable coast and in the forest of Russia.

810
01:36:01.660 --> 01:36:07.400
But the project was not described merely to indicate the close comparisons between America

811
01:36:07.400 --> 01:36:14.160
in Russia, from whose forest had come furs, timber, and naval stores, and over whose roots

812
01:36:14.160 --> 01:36:17.160
came the spices and luxury of the Orient.

813
01:36:17.160 --> 01:36:23.520
Rather, the plan was offered as an alternative to the Russian trade that was desperately

814
01:36:23.520 --> 01:36:26.720
needed by the London merchants.

815
01:36:26.720 --> 01:36:32.760
For England's Baltic trade had been crippled by conflicts with the Hanseatic League, and

816
01:36:32.760 --> 01:36:41.760
The German-English government had granted to the newly-charted Eastland Company a monopoly of exports to the Baltic areas.

817
01:36:41.760 --> 01:36:54.760
The conflict between the Dutch and the Spanish in the Netherlands had brought upon Antwerp a series of calamities that ruined it as the great European center of commerce.

818
01:36:54.760 --> 01:37:08.760
Moreover, when the King of Spain acceded to the Portuguese throne in 1580, the Dutch were eliminated from the vital trade in spices from Lisbon, causing a rise in prices.

819
01:37:08.760 --> 01:37:23.760
Most important, in the 1580s, the Muscovy Company's trade with Russia suffered crippling blows when the Cossacks disrupted the Volga route, by which England had received spices from Persia and Central Asia.

820
01:37:23.760 --> 01:37:30.760
and when Russia lost its Baltic coast, including the port of Narva, to Sweden.

821
01:37:30.760 --> 01:37:42.760
To regain the spice trade, a group of leading merchants of the Muscovy Company formed the Turkey Company and the Venice Company in 1581

822
01:37:42.760 --> 01:37:47.760
for direct trade with the Levant in spices and Mediterranean goods.

823
01:37:47.760 --> 01:37:56.760
Because of wars in the Levant, these companies sent English merchants overland to India to establish a direct trade in spices.

824
01:37:56.760 --> 01:38:10.760
When these merchants returned, the Turkey and Venice companies were merged into the Levant Company, 1592, with a charter to trade with India through the Levant and Persia.

825
01:38:10.760 --> 01:38:29.760
Having secured his monopoly grant of colonization, Sir Walter Raleigh planted, in 1585, the first English colony in what would later be the United States, on Roanoke Island off the coast of present-day North Carolina.

826
01:38:29.760 --> 01:38:42.760
The area had been first explored by Ralph Lane and Richard Grenville under Raleigh's direction the previous year and was named Virginia in honor of England's Virgin Queen.

827
01:38:42.760 --> 01:38:50.760
The new colony had few dedicated settlers, however, and the people returned to England two years later.

828
01:38:50.760 --> 01:39:01.760
In 1587, still another Raleigh expedition headed by the painter John White tried to affect a permanent settlement of Roanoke Island.

829
01:39:01.760 --> 01:39:11.760
Indeed, the first English child born in America, Virginia Dare, granddaughter of John White, was born that summer at Roanoke Colony.

830
01:39:11.760 --> 01:39:26.760
But English interest in and communication with the tiny colony was cut off during the battle with the Spanish Armada and White, stranded in England, could not return to Roanoke until 1591.

831
01:39:26.760 --> 01:39:37.760
He could then find no trace of any of the colonists. The first attempt at English colonization of America had totally failed.

832
01:39:37.760 --> 01:39:46.320
If Raleigh and Gilbert had received their inspiration for colonizing from such men as Hacklewt,

833
01:39:46.320 --> 01:39:50.860
their practical experience had been picked up in the course of subduing and enslaving

834
01:39:50.860 --> 01:39:58.560
Ireland. After serving in the army, attempting to impose English rule on Ireland, Gilbert

835
01:39:58.560 --> 01:40:06.620
had proposed, in the late 1560s, to plant Englishmen in Ulster, as the Irish were forcibly

836
01:40:06.620 --> 01:40:36.620
A few years later, Gilbert became governor of Munster in southern Ireland. In the course of pacifying the Irish, he drove out Irish peasants and replaced them with West Country English. Even as late as 1580, Gilbert and Raleigh fought together to suppress the Irish in Munster and were rewarded with sizable grants of land. After the American colonizing failures, Raleigh

837
01:40:36.620 --> 01:40:43.620
In 1589, Raleigh, having expended 40,000 pounds on the American failure, and not succeeding in persuading the Queen to supply more, was happy to sell his patent for North American colonization to a group of associates and London merchants in the United States.

838
01:41:06.620 --> 01:41:16.020
largely connected with the Muscovy Company and including John White, the Reverend Richard Hacklute, and Sir Thomas Smith.

839
01:41:16.020 --> 01:41:22.020
Raleigh, however, reserved to himself the right of dominion over the prospective colony.

840
01:41:22.020 --> 01:41:33.020
Leading circles in and around the Muscovy Company had thus resumed the monopoly of rights to exploration and colonization of North America,

841
01:41:33.020 --> 01:41:51.020
which monopoly they had briefly held a decade earlier, but now they had a far greater incentive to pursue their grant to try to find compensation for the upheavals of the spice and Baltic trade and of Antwerp during the 1580s.

842
01:41:51.020 --> 01:42:01.020
Consideration was therefore given to establishing a sea trade direct to the East Indies by English and Dutch merchants.

843
01:42:01.020 --> 01:42:14.020
Thomas Cavendish, who had served on the Raleigh voyage to America in 1585, had sailed around the world during 1585-88 and had returned with a cargo of spices.

844
01:42:14.020 --> 01:42:33.020
The war with Spain now completely cut England off from the Levant spice trade and in 1589, the London merchants received permission from the Privy Council to send three ships to the East Indies, carrying silver out of the country to pay for spices.

845
01:42:33.020 --> 01:42:42.020
Cavendish and John Davis, another old associate of Raleigh, made an unsuccessful attempt to circumnavigate the world.

846
01:42:42.020 --> 01:42:51.020
James Lancaster, who had been a merchant in Lisbon, was, in 1591, dispatched with three ships to India.

847
01:42:51.020 --> 01:42:57.020
He returned in 1594 with one ship and a cargo of spices.

848
01:42:57.020 --> 01:43:09.020
In 1593, the Muscovy and Levant companies moved to the fore, sending George Weymouth to search for a northwest passage to India along the coast of North America.

849
01:43:09.020 --> 01:43:18.420
The Dutch began in 1594 to form companies for distant voyages around Africa to India.

850
01:43:18.420 --> 01:43:25.220
Their first fleet returned in 1597, thereby giving a new impetus to the activity of English

851
01:43:25.220 --> 01:43:26.620
merchants.

852
01:43:26.620 --> 01:43:34.300
In 1598 alone, Dutch companies sent five fleets, totaling 22 ships, to the Indies.

853
01:43:34.300 --> 01:43:38.060
John Davis was the chief pilot of the Zeeland fleet.

854
01:43:38.060 --> 01:43:45.420
By 1601, over a dozen Dutch fleets of almost 70 ships had sailed for the East Indies. Because

855
01:43:45.420 --> 01:43:51.380
of renewed English voyages and conflicts with the Portuguese, the Dutch merchants, forming

856
01:43:51.380 --> 01:43:57.340
the companies that had sent the ships to the East Indies, began to amalgamate them, and

857
01:43:57.340 --> 01:44:06.340
in March 1602, all the Dutch companies merged into the United East India Company.

858
01:44:06.340 --> 01:44:13.540
In September 1599, London merchants belonging to various trading companies, especially the

859
01:44:13.540 --> 01:44:20.680
Levant Company, formed an association on the model of the successful Dutch companies and

860
01:44:20.680 --> 01:44:27.860
petitioned the government to charter a company of London merchants having a monopoly of trade

861
01:44:27.860 --> 01:44:31.100
by sea to the East Indies.

862
01:44:31.100 --> 01:44:38.380
The Charter to the East India Company was granted on December 31, 1600 under the title

863
01:44:38.380 --> 01:44:45.420
of The Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies.

864
01:44:45.420 --> 01:44:51.020
The Levant Company was granted a new charter to distinguish the monopoly areas of the two

865
01:44:51.020 --> 01:44:52.980
companies.

866
01:44:52.980 --> 01:45:01.380
The governor named in the charter of the East India Company was Sir Thomas Smith, SMITH

867
01:45:01.380 --> 01:45:09.980
or SMYTHE. Smith's grandfather, Andrew Judd, had been a principal founder of the Muscovy

868
01:45:09.980 --> 01:45:17.980
Company. His father had preceded him as a leading tax collector and had been a key royal

869
01:45:17.980 --> 01:45:24.980
Smith was governor also of the Muscovy Company and the Levant Company of which he was a founder, and was also the principal member of the group of London merchants to whom Raleigh had in 1589 assigned his patent for American colonization.

870
01:45:47.980 --> 01:45:54.980
and Colonization. Indeed, Smith was the governor of every one of England's privileged companies

871
01:45:55.540 --> 01:46:02.140
then interested in foreign commerce and colonization. Smith has been referred to as the greatest

872
01:46:02.140 --> 01:46:09.140
merchant prince of his era, but it is clear that his status and wealth arose not from

873
01:46:09.440 --> 01:46:16.440
private trade, but from the governmental privileges of tax farming and grants of monopoly.

874
01:46:16.440 --> 01:46:36.440
The first voyage of the East India Company went out under the direction of James Lancaster and John Davis in 1601 and was followed the next year by George Weymouth's second voyage along the coast of North America, sponsored by the East India and Muscovy companies.

875
01:46:36.440 --> 01:46:49.440
Meanwhile, Sir Walter Raleigh resumed his interest in the New World in 1602, sending out another feudal expedition to search for survivors of the Roanoke colony.

876
01:46:49.440 --> 01:47:01.440
But in the following year, Raleigh's colonizing activities were unceremoniously cut short by the accession of King James I to the throne of England.

877
01:47:01.440 --> 01:47:08.440
England. One of James' first acts was to consign Raleigh to an indefinite imprisonment

878
01:47:08.520 --> 01:47:15.520
in the Tower and abruptly to vacate his dominion over Virginia. Among the King's motives was

879
01:47:16.040 --> 01:47:23.040
the desire to give Spain a tangible token of the new King's wish to conclude peace

880
01:47:23.340 --> 01:47:29.840
between the two warring countries. For Raleigh was now perhaps the most ardent warmonger

881
01:47:29.840 --> 01:47:34.720
and plunderer against Spanish shipping and whose colonizing activities

882
01:47:34.720 --> 01:47:38.800
sought bases for aggression against Spain.

883
01:47:38.800 --> 01:47:43.680
His incarceration was therefore a particularly apt token of peace between

884
01:47:43.680 --> 01:47:45.600
the two nations.

885
01:47:45.600 --> 01:47:50.720
Indeed, peace was concluded the next year, in August 1604,

886
01:47:50.720 --> 01:47:54.960
after which King James cracked down on the formerly

887
01:47:54.960 --> 01:47:59.120
lionized captains of piracy and freebooting.

888
01:47:59.120 --> 01:48:05.680
The Treaty of London of 1604 provided for freedom of commerce between England and Spain

889
01:48:05.680 --> 01:48:12.360
as it had existed prior to the war. Since England had had the right to sail to Spain

890
01:48:12.360 --> 01:48:19.040
and Portugal, England now claimed that its ships could sail to the East and West Indies

891
01:48:19.040 --> 01:48:26.400
as well. Spanish America was the source of tobacco and its use in England increased greatly

892
01:48:26.400 --> 01:48:29.600
once trade was reestablished on a regular basis

893
01:48:29.600 --> 01:48:33.800
even though James disapproved of its use as a poisonous weed.

894
01:48:33.800 --> 01:48:38.760
Although the London merchants hoped to monopolize the renewed trade

895
01:48:38.760 --> 01:48:42.160
with Spain, the protest of the merchants of the West

896
01:48:42.160 --> 01:48:45.360
country ports, especially Bristol and Plymouth,

897
01:48:45.360 --> 01:48:50.600
forced the government to backtrack. First it tried to include the West country

898
01:48:50.600 --> 01:48:52.160
merchants in the monopoly

899
01:48:52.160 --> 01:48:56.380
and then it decreed for all English merchants freedom of trade

900
01:48:56.380 --> 01:49:02.140
to Portugal, Spain and the Western Mediterranean, a policy that was later to apply to American

901
01:49:02.140 --> 01:49:08.940
merchants. At the same time, the privileged merchants of the Levant and Muscovy companies

902
01:49:08.940 --> 01:49:14.580
were suffering further losses because of local difficulties, especially foreign invasions

903
01:49:14.580 --> 01:49:20.420
of Russia. While economic pressure was turning the attention of English merchants once again

904
01:49:20.420 --> 01:49:27.860
to Possible Markets and Supplies of Raw Materials in North America, and peace renewed attention

905
01:49:27.860 --> 01:49:32.580
to the new world that had been diverted by the war against Spain.

906
01:49:32.580 --> 01:49:38.700
The peace treaty also terminated the previously permanent employment of many military and

907
01:49:38.700 --> 01:49:42.020
naval officers engaged in the war.

908
01:49:42.020 --> 01:49:49.620
In 1605, Wymouth again explored the coast of New England, this time in behalf of a group

909
01:49:49.620 --> 01:49:58.180
A group of soldier couriers, including Sir Ferdinando Gorgias, the Earl of Southampton,

910
01:49:58.180 --> 01:50:01.900
and the latter's brother-in-law, Sir Thomas Arundel.

911
01:50:01.900 --> 01:50:09.380
Reimuth's return in July 1605 led to several projects for trade and colonization in America,

912
01:50:09.380 --> 01:50:15.560
and in September of that year, petitions were presented to the Privy Council for the formation

913
01:50:15.560 --> 01:50:19.340
of companies to engage in these activities.

914
01:50:19.340 --> 01:50:24.020
Although the Privy Council was then considered a new project to plant English colonists in

915
01:50:24.020 --> 01:50:30.540
the lands taken from the Irish in Ulster, the value of North American colonies to English

916
01:50:30.540 --> 01:50:37.380
ship owners and to the English Navy led the Trinity House Corporation and the Privy Council

917
01:50:37.380 --> 01:50:39.500
to approve the petitions.

918
01:50:39.500 --> 01:50:47.460
Finally, in April 1606, Raleigh's Old Dominion over Virginia was granted to two sets of powerful

919
01:50:47.460 --> 01:50:54.460
Merchants, which included the merchants to whom Raleigh had sold his rights of trade.

920
01:50:54.460 --> 01:51:01.300
The new patent divided the monopoly powers of government over Virginia between two joint

921
01:51:01.300 --> 01:51:03.860
stock companies of merchants.

922
01:51:03.860 --> 01:51:11.980
The South Virginia Company was to have claim over the land between the 34th and 38th parallels

923
01:51:11.980 --> 01:51:17.060
roughly from Cape Fear north to the Potomac River.

924
01:51:17.060 --> 01:51:24.780
The North Virginia Company was to rule between the 41st and 45th parallels, roughly from

925
01:51:24.780 --> 01:51:27.180
Long Island to Maine.

926
01:51:27.180 --> 01:51:34.460
To stimulate competition and to provide incentive for colonizing, the zone in between was thrown

927
01:51:34.460 --> 01:51:40.220
open to settlement by either company, with the stipulation that one could not settle

928
01:51:40.220 --> 01:51:43.580
within 100 miles of the other.

929
01:51:43.580 --> 01:51:48.820
Since the South Virginia Company was headed by leading merchants of London, it soon became

930
01:51:48.820 --> 01:51:54.620
known as the London Company, while the North Virginia Company, centered around merchants

931
01:51:54.620 --> 01:51:59.040
of Plymouth, came to be called the Plymouth Company.

932
01:51:59.040 --> 01:52:05.140
Each company was granted powers to allocate its land in any way it wished.

933
01:52:05.140 --> 01:52:10.940
The King reserved the then customary royalty of five percent of whatever gold or silver

934
01:52:10.940 --> 01:52:38.940
The King vested supervisory control of the two companies in a royal council of Virginia, which was appointed by the King, and which in turn was to appoint resident local councils to govern each of the two colonies.

935
01:52:38.940 --> 01:52:56.940
The settlers and their descendants were supposed to enjoy all the liberties, franchises and immunities of Englishmen at home, a clause immediately contradicted by the absence of any provision for elections or home rule.

936
01:52:56.940 --> 01:53:16.940
The Plymouth Company for North Virginia was composed of West Country merchants, gentry and soldiers, and was headed by the Governor of Plymouth, Sir Ferdinando Gorgias, who desired to establish a fishing and fur trading colony, independent of the London merchant financiers.

937
01:53:16.940 --> 01:53:25.940
Also included in the group were Raleigh Gilbert, a son of Sir Humphrey, and Sir John Popham, Chief Justice of the King's Bench.

938
01:53:25.940 --> 01:53:30.340
Sir John had played a leading role in procuring the Charter.

939
01:53:30.340 --> 01:53:37.980
The Plymouth Company dispatched an exploratory expedition in October 1606 and sent colonists

940
01:53:37.980 --> 01:53:45.860
to America in May 1607 under Raleigh Gilbert and George Popham, a relative of Sir John.

941
01:53:45.860 --> 01:53:52.020
A settlement was established on the Kennebec River in what is now Maine, but because of

942
01:53:52.020 --> 01:53:58.420
of a severe winter and poor crops and the death of the two poplums, the colony was abandoned

943
01:53:58.420 --> 01:54:01.300
in September 1608.

944
01:54:01.300 --> 01:54:07.080
Thereafter the Plymouth Company did not attempt further colonization but concentrated on the

945
01:54:07.080 --> 01:54:11.420
Newfoundland fisheries and some fur trade.

946
01:54:11.420 --> 01:54:18.220
The London Company for South Virginia was composed of members of leading political families.

947
01:54:18.220 --> 01:54:22.740
The leading member was the ubiquitous Sir Thomas Smith, the leader of the group that

948
01:54:22.740 --> 01:54:28.500
had purchased trade rights from Raleigh and the governor of the East India, Muscovy and

949
01:54:28.500 --> 01:54:36.020
Levant companies. Other leading members were the Reverend Richard Hacklute, Robert Rich,

950
01:54:36.020 --> 01:54:42.340
Earl of Warwick, a leader in the monopoly chartered East India, Burma and Guinea companies,

951
01:54:42.340 --> 01:54:47.940
and the leading London merchants involved in the Muscovy, Levant and East India companies.

952
01:54:47.940 --> 01:54:53.480
And just as the Levant Company had been founded by members of the Muscovy Company and a quarter

953
01:54:53.480 --> 01:55:00.220
of the stockholders in the East India Company were members of the Levant Company, so over

954
01:55:00.220 --> 01:55:06.420
100 members of the East India Company were now investors in the London Virginia Company,

955
01:55:06.420 --> 01:55:12.660
the main purpose of which was to provide a source of raw materials such as tropical products,

956
01:55:12.660 --> 01:55:14.900
spices and furs.

957
01:55:14.900 --> 01:55:19.980
Another prominent member in the London Company was Sir Edwin Sandys, a prominent Puritan

958
01:55:19.980 --> 01:55:24.980
and friend of a royal favorite, the Earl of Southampton.

959
01:55:24.980 --> 01:55:31.620
The London Virginia Company sent forth its first settlers in December 1606.

960
01:55:31.620 --> 01:55:38.180
They were carried then, as in succeeding years, on ships provided by the Muscovy Company,

961
01:55:38.180 --> 01:55:43.140
which long remained the major operator in the Virginia trade.

962
01:55:43.140 --> 01:55:49.460
To them the colonist took the king's instructions to the company, which included the requirement

963
01:55:49.460 --> 01:55:57.980
of a public oath of obedience by the colonist and a death penalty for all manner of crimes,

964
01:55:57.980 --> 01:56:02.740
including tumults, sedition, conspiracy and adultery.

965
01:56:02.740 --> 01:56:08.220
The president and the council of the company were empowered to make laws for the colonist,

966
01:56:08.220 --> 01:56:14.180
Assistant with the Laws of England, subject to revision by the Royal Council.

967
01:56:14.180 --> 01:56:22.140
The ships landed at Chesapeake Bay the following May 6. A settlement was founded 30 miles inland

968
01:56:22.140 --> 01:56:29.700
on the James River, called Jamestown in honor of the King. This was the first successful

969
01:56:29.700 --> 01:56:36.100
English settlement in North America. The colony of Virginia had begun.

970
01:56:36.100 --> 01:56:41.160
The new English colonial grants were placed between the French exploration and settlement

971
01:56:41.160 --> 01:56:45.560
to the north and the Spanish occupation to the south.

972
01:56:45.560 --> 01:56:50.760
Through trading and missionary posts, Spain had been effectively occupying the coast of

973
01:56:50.760 --> 01:56:55.900
what was later to become South Carolina, Georgia and Florida.

974
01:56:55.900 --> 01:57:02.400
The French had been continually exploring and trading on the St. Lawrence for some years.

975
01:57:02.400 --> 01:57:07.220
In 1602, they had established a trade in furs, which would become the most valuable French

976
01:57:07.220 --> 01:57:15.120
export from North America. In 1602, the patent for monopoly of the fur trade to France from

977
01:57:15.120 --> 01:57:23.120
North America had been granted to the Company of New France, which sent Samuel de Champlain

978
01:57:23.120 --> 01:57:30.200
to explore the St. Lawrence in 1603. The following years, Champlain established a fur post at

979
01:57:30.200 --> 01:57:38.640
at Acadia, now Nova Scotia, and explored the coast of New England. In 1607, the Muscovy

980
01:57:38.640 --> 01:57:44.420
Company commissioned Henry Hudson, a descendant of the founder of the company, to explore

981
01:57:44.420 --> 01:57:52.920
the Arctic regions around Greenland. Two years later, Holland and Spain concluded a trade,

982
01:57:52.920 --> 01:57:57.860
which the Dutch claimed gave them rights, similar to those accorded to the English,

983
01:57:57.860 --> 01:58:00.380
to sail to the New World.

984
01:58:00.380 --> 01:58:06.580
Promptly the Dutch sent Henry Hudson under auspices of the Dutch East India Company to

985
01:58:06.580 --> 01:58:09.500
explore the Arctic regions.

986
01:58:09.500 --> 01:58:14.740
Sailing along the North American coast from Newfoundland to the Carolinas, Hudson returned

987
01:58:14.740 --> 01:58:21.740
by way of Delaware Bay, South River, and the Hudson River, North River, which he explored

988
01:58:21.740 --> 01:58:23.540
up to Albany.

989
01:58:23.540 --> 01:58:26.980
He claimed the fur regions for the Dutch.

990
01:58:26.980 --> 01:58:34.340
In 1610, Hudson set forth under an English company, headed by Sir Thomas Smith, and discovered

991
01:58:34.340 --> 01:58:40.540
Hudson's Bay before being abandoned by his mutinous crew. Several of the companies of

992
01:58:40.540 --> 01:58:48.540
which Smith was governor were subject to reorganization in the spring of 1609 because of the new Dutch

993
01:58:48.540 --> 01:58:55.020
competition in North American waters, resulting from the Dutch peace treaty with Spain. New

994
01:58:55.020 --> 01:59:01.900
New charters were granted in May 1609 to the English East India Company and the closely

995
01:59:01.900 --> 01:59:09.440
linked London Virginia Company. The East India Company was granted a perpetual monopoly charter

996
01:59:09.440 --> 01:59:16.060
and in the following year established its first trading post in India. Analogous to

997
01:59:16.060 --> 01:59:22.120
the East India Company charter, the new charter granted to the treasurer and company of the

998
01:59:22.120 --> 01:59:28.000
The Adventures and Planters of the City of London for the First Colony in Virginia, a

999
01:59:28.000 --> 01:59:34.400
Corporate Body Politic, with Sir Thomas Smith filling the key royally appointed Post of

1000
01:59:34.400 --> 01:59:37.080
Treasurer.

1001
01:59:37.080 --> 01:59:41.480
The Charter was completely distinct from the old Joint Charter of the unsuccessful Plymouth

1002
01:59:41.480 --> 01:59:43.340
Company.

1003
01:59:43.340 --> 01:59:50.020
The re-chartering of an independent London-Virginia Company for American Colonization was complemented

1004
01:59:50.020 --> 01:59:56.880
by the chartering of a new company for planting English and Scottish colonists in the lands

1005
01:59:56.880 --> 02:00:00.580
recently conquered in Northern Ireland.

1006
02:00:00.580 --> 02:00:06.780
In the spring of 1610, a group of London and Bristol merchants, interested in founding

1007
02:00:06.780 --> 02:00:13.700
a colony in proximity to the fishing banks off Newfoundland, was chartered as the treasurer

1008
02:00:13.700 --> 02:00:19.300
and company of adventurers and planters of cities of London and Bristol for the colony

1009
02:00:19.300 --> 02:00:28.380
or Plantation of Newfoundland. Under the direction of Sir Ferdinando Gorgias, the company prepared

1010
02:00:28.380 --> 02:00:35.180
to send exploratory voyages along the New England coast. To improve the financial condition

1011
02:00:35.180 --> 02:00:42.260
of the London Virginia Company, a new charter was issued in 1612 to Smith as the treasurer

1012
02:00:42.260 --> 02:01:04.260
The boundaries included the islands within 300 leagues of the continent, specifically the rediscovered Bermuda's or Summers Islands, which in 1615 were placed under the Summers Islands Company, of which Smith was also the governor.

1013
02:01:04.260 --> 02:01:19.260
Along with the 1612 Virginia Company Charter, Smith received a charter as the governor and company of the merchants of London, discoverers of the Northwest Passage, to follow up Henry Hudson's last voyage.

1014
02:01:19.260 --> 02:01:25.260
In addition, Smith's Moscovy Company was re-chartered in 1613.

1015
02:01:25.260 --> 02:01:43.260
This enlarged the Muscovy Company's privileges in exploring Greenland, Hudson Bay, Newfoundland and North America, and included a monopoly of the whale and seal fishing, which had become the Company's major interest because of the troubles in Russia.

1016
02:01:43.260 --> 02:02:13.260
As this was an attempt to exclude Dutch, as well as independent English whalers, the States General of the United Provinces of the Netherlands granted charters in 1614 to accompany for the Greenland whale fishery an informal recognition of the exploratory work of Henry Hudson, granted to the New Netherland Company the power to colonize and trade in the area about the South, Delaware,

1017
02:02:13.260 --> 02:02:16.260
and the North Hudson Rivers.