WEBVTT NOTE 42. The Fall and Breakup of New Netherland 1 00:00:00.000 --> 00:00:05.800 Volume 1, Chapter 42, The Fall and Breakup of New Netherland 2 00:00:05.800 --> 00:00:13.500 New Amsterdam functioned as the major center of an illegal but free trade for the English colonies in America, 3 00:00:13.500 --> 00:00:21.300 for the purchase of European manufacturers and for the sale of enumerated commodities, especially tobacco. 4 00:00:21.300 --> 00:00:28.900 Following the restoration of Charles II and the elaboration of the Navigation Act structure, 5 00:00:28.900 --> 00:00:35.620 England began to find New Netherland to be a major irritant, a major loophole in its 6 00:00:35.620 --> 00:00:40.060 attempt to mold and restrict colonial trade. 7 00:00:40.060 --> 00:00:46.200 The English Council of Trade, established in the autumn of 1660, complained regularly 8 00:00:46.200 --> 00:00:52.580 to the government that New Netherland was the center of free trade in America in violation 9 00:00:52.580 --> 00:00:54.580 of the acts of trade. 10 00:00:54.580 --> 00:01:00.280 Furthermore, English ire was drawn toward New Netherland because the latter vigorously 11 00:01:00.280 --> 00:01:06.000 competed with the English colonies for settlement by Englishmen. 12 00:01:06.000 --> 00:01:12.840 The colonial concern of the English government was reflected in its continuation of the protectorate 13 00:01:12.840 --> 00:01:18.280 project for settlement and development of the island of Jamaica. 14 00:01:18.280 --> 00:01:23.560 The colonial government there would be completely dominated by the English government and was 15 00:01:23.560 --> 00:01:28.440 was to be the standard form imposed on the colonies. 16 00:01:28.440 --> 00:01:34.160 Since an elected assembly such as Virginia's would be attractive to settlers, this form 17 00:01:34.160 --> 00:01:37.120 of government was pressed on Jamaica. 18 00:01:37.120 --> 00:01:42.800 And the fear that Dutch toleration would attract English settlers to Long Island instead of 19 00:01:42.800 --> 00:01:49.560 to Jamaica caused the English government to exempt the English colonies from the principal 20 00:01:49.560 --> 00:01:56.820 Religious Act of the Restoration, the Act of Uniformity of May 1662. 21 00:01:56.820 --> 00:02:04.640 In February 1662, the Dutch West India Company had invited all those of tender conscience 22 00:02:04.640 --> 00:02:11.680 in England or elsewhere oppressed to settle on Long Island, where the major English settlements 23 00:02:11.680 --> 00:02:18.520 in New Netherland were located. Since this threatened to attract dissenters from England, 24 00:02:18.520 --> 00:02:25.200 Where repression of the Puritans was increasing, and especially dissenters from New England, 25 00:02:25.200 --> 00:02:31.360 the 1662 Act of Uniformity did not apply to the colonies, which had been included in 26 00:02:31.360 --> 00:02:33.560 the 1559 Act. 27 00:02:33.560 --> 00:02:40.360 Thus, Dutch colonial competition provided the New England colonies with religious benefits 28 00:02:40.360 --> 00:02:44.200 as well as economic and political ones. 29 00:02:44.200 --> 00:02:50.880 The Dutch West India Company furthermore was a point of special animosity to the English 30 00:02:50.880 --> 00:02:57.840 imperialist as it was a major competitor of the principal instrument of English speculation 31 00:02:57.840 --> 00:03:04.360 and expansion, the Company of Royal Adventures into Africa, which had raided the Dutch slave 32 00:03:04.360 --> 00:03:07.400 ports in West Africa. 33 00:03:07.400 --> 00:03:13.620 When the Spanish government sold the slave trade contract, or asiento de negros, to 34 00:03:13.620 --> 00:03:20.240 a Genoese company, which subcontracted the asiento to the Dutch West India Company and 35 00:03:20.240 --> 00:03:27.400 the Company of Royal Adventures into Africa, the English Company was granted a new charter, 36 00:03:27.400 --> 00:03:35.360 January 1663, and the monopoly of trade in slaves from West Africa to the English colonies, 37 00:03:35.360 --> 00:03:40.280 as well as the exclusive right to occupy ports in West Africa. 38 00:03:40.280 --> 00:03:46.560 In 1650, New Netherland and the New England Confederation had come to an agreement by 39 00:03:46.560 --> 00:03:53.440 which the English towns of eastern Long Island came under Connecticut or New Haven government 40 00:03:53.440 --> 00:03:59.820 and the western quarter of the island remained Dutch. Connecticut, emboldened by its new 41 00:03:59.820 --> 00:04:06.580 New Royal Charter now also pressed its presumptuous claims to Dutch territory, specifically to 42 00:04:06.580 --> 00:04:12.620 Westchester County and to the towns of western Long Island, where Englishmen had continued 43 00:04:12.620 --> 00:04:19.220 to settle. Peter Stuyvesant realized that in any conflict, New Netherland would be hopelessly 44 00:04:19.220 --> 00:04:25.980 beaten by the English colonies alone. Its population of 5,000, contrasted with one of 45 00:04:25.980 --> 00:04:42.580 Stuyvesant had displayed his caution in relations with the English when the New Englander Thomas 46 00:04:42.580 --> 00:04:51.420 Pell purchased and settled the Westchester land of Pelham Manor, formerly Anne's Hook, 47 00:04:51.420 --> 00:04:54.740 where Anne Hutchinson had been murdered. 48 00:04:54.740 --> 00:05:01.860 Stuyvesant ordered Pell to leave, bag in baggage, but did nothing when Pell failed to comply. 49 00:05:01.860 --> 00:05:08.660 And now, in late 1663, the English towns of Long Island rebelled and proclaimed King Charles 50 00:05:08.660 --> 00:05:15.700 as their sovereign. They formed themselves into a league consisting of Hempstead, Gravesend, 51 00:05:15.700 --> 00:05:23.340 Flushing, Oyster Bay, Middleburg and Jamaica, and chose the veteran adventurer John Scott 52 00:05:23.340 --> 00:05:29.340 of Hempstead as their president. The rebels thereupon called upon England for action to 53 00:05:29.340 --> 00:05:35.860 crush the colony of New Netherland. Stuyvesant again pursued the course of prudence and agreed 54 00:05:35.860 --> 00:05:42.860 to Connecticut demands to give up Westchester and the Long Island towns. When inter-ethnic 55 00:05:43.140 --> 00:05:50.060 riots ensued on Long Island, however, Stuyvesant sent an armed force to protect the Dutch Long 56 00:05:50.060 --> 00:05:55.340 Island Towns of Brooklyn and Flatbush. 57 00:05:55.340 --> 00:06:02.420 Amid this growing crisis, a long talk met in New Amsterdam in April 1664, but could 58 00:06:02.420 --> 00:06:09.620 only bow reluctantly to force majeure and agree to yield to Connecticut's terms. 59 00:06:09.620 --> 00:06:15.700 But in the meanwhile, a special committee of the Privy Council found a solution in January 60 00:06:15.700 --> 00:06:23.100 1664 to the problem of the English settlers in New Netherland and the threat of free trade 61 00:06:23.100 --> 00:06:29.660 to England that New Netherland's existence posed. It would end New Netherland's existence 62 00:06:29.660 --> 00:06:38.460 by conquest. Consequently, in February a grant and on March 12 a patent were issued to the 63 00:06:38.460 --> 00:06:44.820 Duke of York, giving him the territories along the Hudson and Delaware rivers where the Dutch 64 00:06:44.820 --> 00:06:50.740 had settled, plus a governmental appropriation of money to cover the expenses of seizing 65 00:06:50.740 --> 00:06:56.900 them as well as the Dutch ports of West Africa. The seizure was to be accomplished by the 66 00:06:56.900 --> 00:07:03.020 English Navy, of which the Duke of York was commander. Of the three-man special committee 67 00:07:03.020 --> 00:07:08.020 that had submitted this recommendation to the Privy Council, it should be noted that 68 00:07:08.020 --> 00:07:15.120 All were officials of the Admiralty under the Duke of York, and two of them, Lord Berkeley 69 00:07:15.120 --> 00:07:24.180 and Sir George Cotterett, were promptly rewarded, June 1664, by the grateful Duke with a sub-grant 70 00:07:24.180 --> 00:07:30.000 of the territory between the Hudson and the Delaware Rivers. 71 00:07:30.000 --> 00:07:36.440 In April 1664, the Duke of York appointed Colonel Richard Nichols to head a commission 72 00:07:36.440 --> 00:08:05.440 The Commissioners, as we have seen, were instructed to arrange for the aid of New England in the conquest of New Netherland, to gain the enforcement of the Navigation Acts and to settle the disputes in New England. Colonel Nichols promptly launched an armed expedition to seize New Netherland. 73 00:08:05.440 --> 00:08:19.440 To meet the English force of 1,000 men that arrived at the end of August, Stuyvesant had only 150 soldiers and 250 citizens capable of bearing arms. 74 00:08:19.440 --> 00:08:29.440 Not only were the Dutch outnumbered, but disaffection had been strong for years, and the burgomasters were strongly inclined to submission. 75 00:08:29.440 --> 00:08:43.440 This inclination was greatly intensified by Nichols' generous terms to the Dutch, offering liberty of conscience, the retention of property rights, and freedom of trade and immigration. 76 00:08:43.440 --> 00:08:52.440 Furthermore, the Dutch citizens were promised freedom from conscription and guaranteed against any billeting of soldiers in their homes. 77 00:08:52.440 --> 00:09:03.440 It was not lost on the realistic Dutch people that they would be enjoying far more liberty under English rule than they ever had under the despotic company government. 78 00:09:03.440 --> 00:09:08.440 The burgomasters and even the magistrates now clamored for submission. 79 00:09:08.440 --> 00:09:17.440 In a tantrum at surrendering his power, Stuyvesant tore the English message to bits, but the people demanded to hear it, 80 00:09:17.440 --> 00:09:29.440 and Nicholas Baird, one of the leaders of the Dutch community, pieced it together and read it to the crowd, which now called exuberantly for submission. 81 00:09:29.440 --> 00:09:38.440 The people were intelligent enough to regard their lives and liberties more highly than they did a remote and artificial patriotism. 82 00:09:38.440 --> 00:09:48.440 As the historian John Fisk pointed out, there were many in the town who did not regard a surrender to England as the worst of misfortunes. 83 00:09:48.440 --> 00:09:57.440 They were weary of Stuyvesant's arbitrary ways, and in this mood they lent a willing ear to the offer of English liberties. 84 00:09:57.440 --> 00:10:07.440 Was it not better to surrender on favorable terms than to lose their lives in behalf of, what, their homes and families? 85 00:10:07.440 --> 00:10:15.000 No, indeed, but in behalf of a remote government which had done little or nothing for them, 86 00:10:15.000 --> 00:10:21.160 if they were lost to Holland, it was Holland's loss, not theirs. 87 00:10:21.160 --> 00:10:29.040 Yet Stuyvesant, a hard-liner to the last, desperately tried to rouse the rapidly defecting 88 00:10:29.040 --> 00:10:32.560 Dutch to resistance to the death. 89 00:10:32.560 --> 00:10:36.140 Even his closest supporters turned against him. 90 00:10:36.140 --> 00:10:43.460 His counselor, Macacius de Sille, warned that resistance is not soldiership, it is sheer 91 00:10:43.460 --> 00:10:51.000 madness. The rigorous Calvinist minister, Reverend Mr. Megaphalensis, urged that it 92 00:10:51.000 --> 00:10:58.380 is wrong to shed blood to no purpose. Even Stuyvesant's own son, Balthazar, affixed 93 00:10:58.380 --> 00:11:05.860 his name to a remonstrance, signed by nearly a hundred leading citizens that pled for surrender. 94 00:11:05.860 --> 00:11:13.860 Finally, left alone in his colony, Peter Stuyvesant gave in, and on September 7, surrendered to the English. 95 00:11:13.860 --> 00:11:22.860 Colonel George Cartwright, a fellow royal commissioner of Nicholson's, obtained the peaceful surrender of Fort Orange on September 20. 96 00:11:22.860 --> 00:11:31.860 The English promptly assumed and continued the understanding the Dutch had with the Iroquois. New Netherland had disappeared. 97 00:11:31.860 --> 00:11:38.860 The English had one last military task, the conquest of the separate colony of New Amstel. 98 00:11:38.860 --> 00:11:43.860 Nichols sent another royal commissioner, Sir Robert Carr, to the Delaware. 99 00:11:43.860 --> 00:11:48.860 Once again the sensible Dutch burghers of New Amstel were eager to surrender, 100 00:11:48.860 --> 00:11:55.860 but the autocratic governor, Dino Ioso, insisted on hopeless resistance. 101 00:11:55.860 --> 00:12:00.860 The English finally stormed and captured Fort Casimir on October 10, 102 00:12:00.860 --> 00:12:07.860 It is an ironic footnote on Peter Stuyvesant's frenzy at the idea of surrender that he passed his last days in the late 1660s and early 1670s in peaceful contentment on his farm in Manhattan. 103 00:12:30.860 --> 00:12:36.060 and not only unmolested but in friendship with Governor Nichols. 104 00:12:36.060 --> 00:12:42.080 Shorn of power, Peter Stuyvesant was a happier and perhaps a wiser man. 105 00:12:42.080 --> 00:12:47.040 The first step of the new governor, Colonel Nichols, was to change important names from 106 00:12:47.040 --> 00:12:52.900 Dutch to English and so New Amsterdam became the city of New York. 107 00:12:52.900 --> 00:12:59.800 New Netherland became New York Province and Fort Orange was renamed Albany after one of 108 00:12:59.800 --> 00:13:04.920 The Duke of York's Titles West of the Delaware, New Anstal was changed 109 00:13:04.920 --> 00:13:09.280 to Newcastle and Altina to Wilmington. 110 00:13:09.280 --> 00:13:15.000 Trouble in Delaware began immediately as Sir Robert Carr plundered the Dutch settlements 111 00:13:15.000 --> 00:13:21.240 unmercifully, confiscating property for the use of his family and friends, plundering 112 00:13:21.240 --> 00:13:26.280 houses and selling Dutch soldiers into servitude in Virginia. 113 00:13:26.280 --> 00:13:33.160 Nichols rushed down to Delaware, removed Carr, and placed his son, Captain John Carr, in 114 00:13:33.160 --> 00:13:38.240 command of the district and at the head of a council of seven. 115 00:13:38.240 --> 00:13:43.600 Boundary and jurisdiction offered a longer range problem in the Delaware district, for 116 00:13:43.600 --> 00:13:49.560 Lord Baltimore claimed all of the West Bank of the Delaware on behalf of Maryland under 117 00:13:49.560 --> 00:13:52.600 Maryland's charter from Charles I. 118 00:13:52.600 --> 00:13:58.600 But the Duke of York refused to remove his troops, and the Delaware region remained as 119 00:13:58.600 --> 00:14:04.720 part of New York province. Another boundary dispute requiring settlement was the conflict 120 00:14:04.720 --> 00:14:09.760 with Connecticut. According to the Duke of York's charter, New York could have claimed 121 00:14:09.760 --> 00:14:16.760 all of Connecticut up to the Connecticut River, thus almost obliterating the colony. But Nichols 122 00:14:16.760 --> 00:14:23.680 Amicably settled for Westchester County and Connecticut obtained the land to the east. 123 00:14:23.680 --> 00:14:28.960 This territory included the town of Stamford, which had tried to proclaim itself an independent 124 00:14:28.960 --> 00:14:36.440 republic. On the other hand, New York, according to the clear-cut terms of the charter, obtained 125 00:14:36.440 --> 00:14:43.200 jurisdiction over all of Long Island. In imitation of Yorkshire and England, Nichols promptly 126 00:14:43.200 --> 00:14:48.620 organized Long Island, Staten Island and Westchester with their preponderant English 127 00:14:48.620 --> 00:14:56.080 population into one district called Yorkshire. The new district contained three sub-districts 128 00:14:56.080 --> 00:15:03.080 or ridings, the East, now Suffolk County and most of Nassau County, the West, including 129 00:15:03.080 --> 00:15:09.760 what is now Kings County and Staten Island, and the North, including what is now Westchester, 130 00:15:09.760 --> 00:15:13.240 of the Bronx and Queens Counties. 131 00:15:13.240 --> 00:15:18.940 As a result of the King's Grant to the Duke of York, New York now included Delaware, the 132 00:15:18.940 --> 00:15:25.380 County of Cornwall, all of Maine East of the Kennebec, and such islands off Massachusetts 133 00:15:25.380 --> 00:15:29.120 as Nantucket and Mothet's Vineyard. 134 00:15:29.120 --> 00:15:34.520 But one break-up of the old New Netherland territory was a bitter blow to Nichols' hopes 135 00:15:34.520 --> 00:15:36.020 of power. 136 00:15:36.020 --> 00:15:42.860 In June 1664, before New Netherland had even been won, the Duke of York had granted the 137 00:15:42.860 --> 00:15:49.460 territory between the Hudson and Delaware rivers, bounded at 41 degrees on the north, 138 00:15:49.460 --> 00:15:55.820 to the proprietorship of two of his court favorites, John Lord Berkeley and Sir George 139 00:15:55.820 --> 00:16:04.820 Cotterett. This new province of New Jersey now lay outside New York jurisdiction. As 140 00:16:04.820 --> 00:16:34.820 The proprietors of New Jersey, Berkley and Cataract, were anxious to promote rapid colonization, hence in February 1665 they promulgated the liberal concessions and agreements, which granted religious freedom to the inhabitants and which offered 150 acres of land for each indentured servant brought over, subject to quick rents of one-half pence per acre to the proprietors. 141 00:16:34.820 --> 00:16:41.340 Each servant upon completing his term was to receive seventy-five acres of land. Furthermore, 142 00:16:41.340 --> 00:16:47.740 the concessions granted the right of freeholders to form their own representative assembly. 143 00:16:47.740 --> 00:16:52.900 The governor and council were to be appointed by the proprietary, but no taxes could be 144 00:16:52.900 --> 00:16:58.420 levied without the approval of the assembly. These particular provisions were virtually 145 00:16:58.420 --> 00:17:04.680 identical with the abortive concessions and agreements promulgated by the Carolina proprietary 146 00:17:04.680 --> 00:17:11.680 Six weeks earlier, appointed as first governor of New Jersey was Philip Catterett, a distant 147 00:17:12.320 --> 00:17:19.320 relative of the proprietor. Catterett set up his capital at the new settlement of Elizabethtown. 148 00:17:20.280 --> 00:17:27.040 Attracted by the guarantee of religious liberty and by the open land, New Englanders soon 149 00:17:27.040 --> 00:17:34.040 poured into New Jersey, adding such settlements as Piscataway, Woodbridge, Middletown and 150 00:17:34.040 --> 00:17:41.040 and Shrewsbury to the older Dutch town of Bergen, which included Pavonia and Hoboken. 151 00:17:41.040 --> 00:17:50.040 In particular, many citizens of New Haven, disgruntled at the seizure by Connecticut, came to New Jersey. 152 00:17:50.040 --> 00:18:01.040 The Reverend Abraham Pearson, the Arch-Calvinist minister of Brantford, led his flock, as we have seen, to found New Ark, 153 00:18:01.040 --> 00:18:11.040 Attempting to duplicate the theocracy of New Haven, they provided in the town constitution that only Puritan Church members could vote. 154 00:18:11.040 --> 00:18:27.040 Meanwhile, after temporarily leaving the Dutch officials in office, Governor Nichols of New York drew up, for the largely English speaking district of Yorkshire, a set of fundamental laws known as the Duke's Laws. 155 00:18:27.040 --> 00:18:34.040 The Duke's laws did not grant anything like the degree of representative government achieved 156 00:18:34.040 --> 00:18:40.400 in the other English colonies. There was no elected assembly. Instead, the legislative 157 00:18:40.400 --> 00:18:46.840 power was exercised by a court of assesies, a body of judges appointed by and subject 158 00:18:46.840 --> 00:18:52.240 to the veto of the governor. On the other hand, trial by jury was introduced into a 159 00:18:52.240 --> 00:19:22.240 The Anglican Church was now established, with the Church supported in each town, but freedom of conscience was granted to all of the sects. Neither were there any town meetings of the old New England model, but the towns were allowed to elect a ruling constable and a board of eight overseers, who were, however, accountable to the Governor. The Patroons were confirmed to be the first to be elected. 160 00:19:22.240 --> 00:19:29.240 In general, we may say that the Duke's laws were more liberal than the old despotic Dutch rule, but far inferior to New England's. 161 00:19:29.240 --> 00:19:38.240 For the Long Island towns, used to a considerable amount of self-government, the Duke's laws were a decidedly backward step. 162 00:19:38.240 --> 00:19:44.240 In March 1665, a convention was held in New England. 163 00:19:44.240 --> 00:20:03.240 In March 1665, a convention of 34 delegates from 17 Yorkshire towns of Westchester and Long Island, 13 English and 4 Dutch, was called to approve the Duke's laws. 164 00:20:03.240 --> 00:20:13.240 The Long Islanders, who had been promised by Nichols their original New England town autonomy and a popular self-governing assembly, 165 00:20:13.240 --> 00:20:17.240 were understandably bitter at this about-face. 166 00:20:17.240 --> 00:20:23.240 However, to their great regret, the Convention finally gave its approval to the laws. 167 00:20:23.240 --> 00:20:29.240 But the Long Island townsmen continued to balk and to object bitterly 168 00:20:29.240 --> 00:20:33.240 to what they believed to be a betrayal by their own deputies. 169 00:20:33.240 --> 00:20:38.240 John Underhill attacked the new laws as arbitrary power. 170 00:20:38.240 --> 00:20:44.920 They also objected vehemently to Nichols's decree forcing all settlers and landowners 171 00:20:44.920 --> 00:20:52.540 in the province to pay a fee to the government to have their land titles reconfirmed. 172 00:20:52.540 --> 00:20:58.420 The object of the government was not only to obtain the fine, but to force the lands 173 00:20:58.420 --> 00:21:04.480 to enter the roles to become subject to payment of quit rents. 174 00:21:04.480 --> 00:21:10.560 So strong were the protests that the new court of Assisi's decreed that anyone criticizing 175 00:21:10.560 --> 00:21:16.320 the Hempstead deputies would be punished for slander. Three protesters from Flushing in 176 00:21:16.320 --> 00:21:22.980 Jamaica were duly fined and placed into the stocks. The townsmen even practiced a form 177 00:21:22.980 --> 00:21:29.980 of nonviolent resistance, refusing to accept the governor's appointments as town constables. 178 00:21:29.980 --> 00:21:37.100 The governor finally imposed a fine of five pounds to force the appointees to accept their post. 179 00:21:37.100 --> 00:21:44.860 Flushing was in such a rebellious state in 1667 that Nichols finally disbanded its militia 180 00:21:44.860 --> 00:21:52.380 and disarmed all of its citizens. And so bitter were the Long Island towns about reconfirming their 181 00:21:52.380 --> 00:21:59.820 land titles for a fee and for subjection to quit rents that they did not confirm the titles 182 00:21:59.820 --> 00:22:06.060 for the entire first decade of English rule. These New Englanders had always been able 183 00:22:06.060 --> 00:22:13.180 to own their land in full without having to pay feudal quit-rents. Another deep economic 184 00:22:13.180 --> 00:22:19.660 grievance of the Long Islanders was Nichols's attempt to enforce the payment of customs 185 00:22:19.660 --> 00:22:27.460 taxes on direct trade with Long Island, a threat that was countered by extensive smuggling. 186 00:22:27.460 --> 00:22:32.580 Douglas's attempt included the hated appointment of a deputy collector of customs for Long 187 00:22:32.580 --> 00:22:37.060 Island to supplement the collector at New York City. 188 00:22:37.060 --> 00:22:42.700 In New York City, a similar but even less democratic system was imposed. All the municipal 189 00:22:42.700 --> 00:22:49.100 officials were appointed annually by the governor. The English offices of mayor, alderman and 190 00:22:49.100 --> 00:22:56.340 sheriff replaced such Dutch post as the Koopman and the Scout Fiscal. The Dutch population 191 00:22:56.340 --> 00:23:01.680 of the City protested this arbitrary rule at length and asked at least for the right 192 00:23:01.680 --> 00:23:07.420 of the Judicial and Legislative New York City Council to present two lists from which the 193 00:23:07.420 --> 00:23:11.220 governor would have to choose the next council. 194 00:23:11.220 --> 00:23:15.740 This concession was finally granted in 1669. 195 00:23:15.740 --> 00:23:22.580 In 1668 the Duke's laws were extended to Delaware and to the remainder of New York, excluding 196 00:23:22.580 --> 00:23:29.580 During the Second Anglo-Dutch War of 1664-67, in which the French took the side of the Dutch, Nicholls, as the King's spokesman in America, called repeatedly for joint New York-New England action against Dutch and English-Dutch relations. 197 00:23:52.580 --> 00:24:00.420 and French America. But New England, and especially Massachusetts, pursued a wise course of peace 198 00:24:00.420 --> 00:24:08.620 and neutrality. In February 1666, England, joined by Nichols, instructed the New England 199 00:24:08.620 --> 00:24:14.900 colonies to organize an expedition for the purpose of seizing Canada from the French. 200 00:24:14.900 --> 00:24:20.900 But the New Englanders stalled, and the project came to nothing, much to the annoyance of 201 00:24:20.900 --> 00:24:50.900 The Dutch citizens suffered considerable grievances from the English troops, especially during the war. Nichols imposed heavier taxes upon them to maintain these troops and billeted the troops in the homes of the unwilling Dutch burghers. Tax delinquency rose sharply during the war period. 202 00:24:50.900 --> 00:24:57.020 period, and when Nichols requested aid in fortifying New York City, the Dutch balked 203 00:24:57.020 --> 00:25:04.380 so long as their own arms were not returned to them, certainly a telling point. Even Governor 204 00:25:04.380 --> 00:25:12.060 Nichols recognized that the English soldiers tended to treat the Dutch citizens very badly. 205 00:25:12.060 --> 00:25:20.460 One important incident occurred at the Dutch town of Isopos, now Kingston, in 1667. Here 206 00:25:20.460 --> 00:25:26.140 Earlier the English captain Broadhead ruled the citizenry in high-handed and dictatorial 207 00:25:26.140 --> 00:25:32.180 fashion. One time Broadhead denounced a man for celebrating Christmas in the Dutch rather 208 00:25:32.180 --> 00:25:38.460 than in the Anglican manner. Finally Broadhead refused to obey the wish of the civil authorities 209 00:25:38.460 --> 00:25:45.060 of the town to set a certain prisoner free. When the Kingstonians protested, Captain Broadhead 210 00:25:45.060 --> 00:26:04.060 The threat was enough to cause a riot, and finally an attack on Broadhead. A Dutchman was killed in the melee by one of Broadhead's troop. The governor then stepped in to suspend Broadhead and also punish the leading Dutch resistors. 211 00:26:04.060 --> 00:26:14.060 The Dutch citizens of New York City also had an important economic grievance, and good reason to deem themselves economically betrayed by the new regime. 212 00:26:14.060 --> 00:26:25.060 In the surrender treaty of New Netherland, the English had made various promises that trade with Holland and in Dutch ships would continue freely. 213 00:26:25.060 --> 00:26:31.060 But this was in direct conflict with the English Navigation Acts. What was to be done? 214 00:26:31.060 --> 00:26:37.060 Nichols at first allowed a few selected New York merchants to trade with Holland. 215 00:26:37.060 --> 00:26:43.060 After the war was over, agitation for permission to trade with Holland was renewed. 216 00:26:43.060 --> 00:26:53.060 To avoid a decline in the Indian fur trade, the Indians preferred Dutch goods, and wholesale emigration by the Dutch citizens, 217 00:26:53.060 --> 00:27:00.060 Nichols persuaded the Duke of York in 1667 to permit Dutch trade with New York. 218 00:27:00.060 --> 00:27:06.060 And yet, in late 1668, this right was abruptly cancelled. 219 00:27:06.060 --> 00:27:11.660 Despite strong protest from the Dutch officials of the city government as contradictory to 220 00:27:11.660 --> 00:27:13.980 basic English imperial policy.