WEBVTT NOTE Puritan Revolution and Republicanism 1 00:00:00.000 --> 00:00:16.000 Thank you, Dr. Reiko. After all these speakers, conventionally you say, well, the previous speaker was a hard act to follow, but there have been, all the speakers we've had would be hard acts to follow. 2 00:00:16.000 --> 00:00:27.000 Now my topic is the Puritan Revolution and Republicanism, by which we mean Republican theory, a body of ideas which we'll get to directly. 3 00:00:27.000 --> 00:00:35.000 I've made about three outlines and they're all too long, so I finally concluded to stick with this one and see how far I got. 4 00:00:39.000 --> 00:00:47.000 I'm looking at this topic, the parents and the Republican theorists, kind of in the shadow of the American Revolution, 5 00:00:47.000 --> 00:00:56.000 because I think that's probably what interests us, and in any event, we in effect had the English Revolution for the English. 6 00:00:56.000 --> 00:01:01.000 They didn't manage it, so we had their revolution for them in a real sense. 7 00:01:01.000 --> 00:01:08.000 And I can dispense with a larger background about the state of Europe and a lot of other things 8 00:01:08.000 --> 00:01:12.000 because the previous speakers have covered much of that. 9 00:01:12.000 --> 00:01:19.000 So I'll cut to the chase and talk about what historian Bernard Balin calls 10 00:01:19.000 --> 00:01:23.000 the transforming ideology of the American Revolution. 11 00:01:23.000 --> 00:01:38.000 And some writers try to reduce this to one or another of the constituent elements, so that someone like the very brilliant J.G.A. Pocock tends to read the entire operation as purely elaborations of republican theory, 12 00:01:38.000 --> 00:01:51.000 whereas traditionally historians intended to say, well, it's all footnotes to John Locke. It seems to me that there is, in fact, a synthesis, as Robert Shellhope calls it, in the American Revolution. 13 00:01:51.000 --> 00:01:56.000 So what are the elements that this synthesis consists of? 14 00:01:56.000 --> 00:02:00.000 I think there's at least four that we could specify. 15 00:02:00.000 --> 00:02:05.000 So we'll have the American synthesis. 16 00:02:05.000 --> 00:02:10.000 The first element would be liberalism. 17 00:02:10.000 --> 00:02:19.000 The second, republicanism. 18 00:02:19.000 --> 00:02:28.000 The third, English law, in no particular order exactly, not really a hierarchy. 19 00:02:28.000 --> 00:02:35.000 And fourth, Protestantism, or at least the kinds we have in the New World. 20 00:02:35.000 --> 00:02:42.000 And all of these are powerfully combined because there's some features in these sets of ideas 21 00:02:42.000 --> 00:02:48.000 that tend to reinforce the others or are compatible with them, so it becomes a very powerful ideology. 22 00:02:48.000 --> 00:02:59.000 In fact, John Adams famously said that the revolution was accomplished by some time in 1776. 23 00:02:59.000 --> 00:03:07.000 The revolution was the change in the outlook of something like a majority of the American colonists 24 00:03:07.000 --> 00:03:11.000 with regard to the British Empire and political life generally. 25 00:03:11.000 --> 00:03:14.000 The revolution was the intellectual change. 26 00:03:14.000 --> 00:03:21.760 What happened from 1776 to 1783 was just a war to see if those ideas would prevail in any form. 27 00:03:21.760 --> 00:03:23.760 I think Adams may have been right. 28 00:03:23.760 --> 00:03:30.240 Now I'll grant to Dr. Higgs that there were some sinister fellows who wanted to re-establish 29 00:03:30.240 --> 00:03:34.240 a mercantilist system under their own control as soon as possible, 30 00:03:34.240 --> 00:03:40.480 but I doubt that this would have motivated the popular masses, so to speak, to participate in the exercise. 31 00:03:40.480 --> 00:03:48.480 So I have to say that ideology has its own share of importance in these situations. 32 00:03:48.480 --> 00:03:49.880 Okay, well, let me say more about these. 33 00:03:49.880 --> 00:03:58.780 Now, liberalism, I will attribute to, among others, the Loevelers in the Puritan Revolution, 34 00:03:58.780 --> 00:04:05.680 who first state, I think in a fairly coherent way, some of the themes that are later developed by John Locke 35 00:04:05.680 --> 00:04:09.680 and his contemporaries, Molyneux and Turrell. 36 00:04:09.680 --> 00:04:26.280 And here we have the idea of that the natural rights can be derived from natural law and an emphasis or a starting point of individuals and the rights that individuals are thought to have inherently. 37 00:04:26.280 --> 00:04:30.320 I'm not going to say state of nature just to avoid all that. 38 00:04:30.320 --> 00:04:33.800 Now, Republican theory, I'm going to leave blank for the moment because I'm going to come back to that. 39 00:04:33.800 --> 00:04:37.480 That's my main main topic. 40 00:04:37.480 --> 00:04:43.120 I'll come back to that, how these ideas came to be in the picture. 41 00:04:43.120 --> 00:04:44.920 English law is interesting. 42 00:04:44.920 --> 00:04:48.560 There are always people out there discovering the latent radicalism in English law. 43 00:04:48.560 --> 00:04:53.840 And we have both rights and the patriot movement, and they all want to file common law rights. 44 00:04:53.840 --> 00:04:56.360 And there's all sorts of fun stuff going on. 45 00:04:56.360 --> 00:05:05.080 Because over the centuries, there's certain things had developed in English law that lend themselves to this kind of treatment. 46 00:05:05.080 --> 00:05:35.080 The columnists summarized this in the concept the rights of Englishmen, and the rights of Englishmen, as the columnists understood them, are essentially a short list of 18th century rights that are the same thing they generally meant when they used the phrase natural law, so they list the actual contents very much the same, the right to move about, own property, the right to defend oneself, there's a number of things that make a pretty coherent package that's put together by, say, Blackstone. 47 00:05:35.080 --> 00:05:36.680 and so on. 48 00:05:36.680 --> 00:05:40.000 And so some of this coming through the evolution 49 00:05:40.000 --> 00:05:42.600 of the common law, largely outside the state. 50 00:05:42.600 --> 00:05:45.160 In fact, Edna Smith has a famous long passage 51 00:05:45.160 --> 00:05:47.700 where he talks about the courts in effect 52 00:05:47.700 --> 00:05:50.720 as competitive institutions that had taken cases 53 00:05:50.720 --> 00:05:54.280 that people actually wanted someone to deal with 54 00:05:54.280 --> 00:05:57.120 and reason out and so forth, 55 00:05:57.120 --> 00:05:59.400 as opposed to, I guess, the Chancery courts 56 00:05:59.400 --> 00:06:00.440 and some of the other courts, 57 00:06:00.440 --> 00:06:04.160 which only affected a small number of people. 58 00:06:04.160 --> 00:06:23.160 Another theme, which I'll put under English law, is constitutionalism, the idea that there is some body of fundamental law, whether it's written or not, that is above the king, or whoever the rulers are, I suppose, in principle, be above the parliament also, constitutionalism. 59 00:06:23.160 --> 00:06:31.000 And as a number of speakers have pointed out, this idea exists all across Europe. 60 00:06:31.000 --> 00:06:36.240 There's a notion of constitutionalism and fundamental law, and this is what the kings, 61 00:06:36.240 --> 00:06:42.280 the would-be absolute monarchs, are trying to overthrow by whatever means they can overthrow this idea. 62 00:06:42.280 --> 00:06:46.040 And these are the ideas to which the opposition movements appeal. 63 00:06:46.040 --> 00:06:50.840 And one footnote to the whole business about the centralizing states competing with one another 64 00:06:50.840 --> 00:06:53.760 through Increasingly Violent Warfare. 65 00:06:55.040 --> 00:06:58.920 There's a whole series of popular uprisings, 66 00:06:58.920 --> 00:07:00.280 sometimes led by aristocrats 67 00:07:00.280 --> 00:07:02.080 and sometimes not led by aristocrats 68 00:07:02.080 --> 00:07:05.680 against the new impositions of the monarchs 69 00:07:05.680 --> 00:07:07.720 and their new attempts to find revenue. 70 00:07:08.720 --> 00:07:10.920 And there's so many of these that we refer to this 71 00:07:10.920 --> 00:07:14.040 as a general crisis of the 17th century, 72 00:07:14.040 --> 00:07:17.100 of the front in France and some other episodes. 73 00:07:17.100 --> 00:07:24.100 Perhaps we could conceive of the Dutch Wars of Independence as an earlier phase of the same process. 74 00:07:24.100 --> 00:07:26.100 Okay, so that's English law. 75 00:07:26.100 --> 00:07:34.100 One more thing that sometimes turns up with the more radical characters in Britain and America is the idea of the Norman Yoke. 76 00:07:34.100 --> 00:07:44.100 That is that Alfred the Great or someone that had really wonderful laws that corresponded to the ideal set of natural rights or whatever. 77 00:07:44.100 --> 00:07:52.400 and that the Norman Conquest had set many of these aside and the reform would consist in throwing off the Norman yoke. 78 00:07:52.400 --> 00:07:59.400 This is often made fun of. I happen to like it myself. I see no problem with this formulation. 79 00:07:59.400 --> 00:08:07.400 Thomas Paine would use this sometimes. Thomas Jefferson is ridiculed for using it, but I see nothing wrong with it, at least as a rhetorical device. 80 00:08:07.400 --> 00:08:18.400 Now we come to Protestantism, and this is immensely complex, and I don't claim to be any sort of theologian, 81 00:08:18.400 --> 00:08:28.400 but I will say this, other than that the Protestant Reformation has created new occasions for the state to intervene 82 00:08:28.400 --> 00:08:35.400 by either nationalizing the church or imposing uniform tolerance when that didn't work. 83 00:08:35.400 --> 00:08:44.280 It's also led to some interesting debates about the structure of church government and people tended, 84 00:08:44.280 --> 00:08:51.840 and indeed intended for a long time, to make analogies between church government and political 85 00:08:51.840 --> 00:09:03.400 government. As Charles I memorably said, no bishop, no king. So that if the church is 86 00:09:03.400 --> 00:09:07.020 is monarchical in structure than it follows that the political state should be, 87 00:09:07.020 --> 00:09:09.620 that they made constant analogies. 88 00:09:09.620 --> 00:09:13.380 And this brings us to Calvinism, which I'll just very briefly say 89 00:09:14.720 --> 00:09:17.340 has long since come into Britain, at least by, 90 00:09:18.160 --> 00:09:21.960 I suppose, by the time of Elizabeth, if not earlier, or Calvinists. 91 00:09:23.120 --> 00:09:28.120 By the time of the English Civil War, beginning in 1642, 92 00:09:28.120 --> 00:09:39.120 1642, Scotland has long since become largely Presbyterian with the Catholic Scots modeled up in the Highlands and the Hebrides 93 00:09:39.120 --> 00:09:45.120 and then they all moved to Nova Scotia for the most part after that. 94 00:09:45.120 --> 00:09:48.120 Anyway, make a long story a little bit longer. 95 00:09:48.120 --> 00:09:55.120 With Calvinism in Scotland and with some of the Calvinists in Britain, 96 00:09:55.120 --> 00:09:59.880 You have this notion of Presbyterianism, the idea that the center of church organization 97 00:09:59.880 --> 00:10:04.960 is the minister of the separate congregations who meet in a synod. 98 00:10:04.960 --> 00:10:11.120 So you begin to have a kind of conciliar model that might be analogous to 99 00:10:11.120 --> 00:10:16.560 a republican form of government or even democracy, and we see the sort of perfect example in 100 00:10:16.560 --> 00:10:23.680 the Congregationalist establishment in New England, in the colonies, where it's almost impossible to 101 00:10:23.680 --> 00:10:53.680 Now, what we have of course in Britain, in England at least, is an established church, the product of Henry VIII's various divorce proceedings and need for revenue and as you saw at some point, with religious issues being debated on the continent, that there was an opportunity to seize the lands of the monasteries and the churches and the churches. 102 00:10:53.680 --> 00:11:23.680 and solve a number of his problems, and he was always out of money. Kings were always out of money, they were always fighting wars in France or somewhere, that the people are supposed to go to for the money, don't really want to support, and so Henry, for a number of reasons, puts himself in charge of the Church in England, and strips away some sacraments and some doctrines, but leaves it somewhat like Catholicism, 103 00:11:23.680 --> 00:11:26.960 Protestant Light with the King as the titular head. 104 00:11:26.960 --> 00:11:31.160 Well, this isn't good enough for the more Protestant elements in the Church of England. 105 00:11:31.160 --> 00:11:35.720 They want to purify the Church of England, hence the name Puritan, and there's a whole 106 00:11:35.720 --> 00:11:44.160 spectrum of how far they want to take the process, and this unfolds in part in the Civil 107 00:11:44.160 --> 00:11:45.160 War. 108 00:11:45.160 --> 00:12:03.160 Okay, now let's see. Other Protestant contributions to the American synthesis might be the notion of the importance, the centrality of the individual conscience, and so forth. 109 00:12:03.160 --> 00:12:11.660 And particularly the idea of covenant, whether it's a covenant between the church and God, various sorts of covenants, 110 00:12:11.660 --> 00:12:21.660 which of course has pretty dramatic political implications in terms of the idea of contract proliferating into the political system. 111 00:12:21.660 --> 00:12:31.660 And in the North American situation, since we had what, well in time we will have 13 colonies that have been governed separately 112 00:13:01.660 --> 00:13:24.060 Now let me go back and fill in the Republican part, which I left blank. 113 00:13:24.060 --> 00:13:27.020 Well, Republican practice precedes Republican theory. 114 00:13:27.020 --> 00:13:37.100 You have the city-states in ancient Greece, probably from somewhere around 600 BC. 115 00:13:37.100 --> 00:13:43.620 There's a transition from aristocratic social authority to something we can reasonably call 116 00:13:43.620 --> 00:13:44.620 Republican. 117 00:13:44.620 --> 00:13:48.660 This is the result of the change in military tactics. 118 00:13:48.660 --> 00:13:54.980 Some clever tactician figured out that if you had the right weapons and trained infantrymen 119 00:13:54.980 --> 00:13:59.740 in the right way, they could withstand the cavalry charge, and since the equation in 120 00:13:59.740 --> 00:14:04.660 these states, or these, I guess they're not really states really, I'll concede that point, 121 00:14:04.660 --> 00:14:11.040 anyway these republics, since the equation is between someone who can fight, bear arms 122 00:14:11.040 --> 00:14:19.240 in defense of the society and citizenship, more people can now be citizens. 123 00:14:19.240 --> 00:14:24.780 Again, you're providing your own weaponry, so it's much more expensive to set yourself 124 00:14:24.780 --> 00:14:49.780 And then something similar happens in Rome, about the same time, and then this is theorized. 125 00:14:49.780 --> 00:15:05.780 It's just sort of narrated by Titus Livy with a bunch of mythological material that might be some of which is about 2,000 years older, possibly, in any event, Titus Livy tells some stories about the Roman Republic. 126 00:15:05.780 --> 00:15:16.780 Aristotle actually theorizes republicanism in a sense by having people go around and find out what the constitutions are of the different cities, 127 00:15:16.780 --> 00:15:32.780 the cities, the politumata, the constitutions, which is not a written document, it's just what they do, go find out what the laws are like in Thebes, how they govern themselves, and they'd get this information in and compare it, again this empiricism perhaps. 128 00:15:32.780 --> 00:15:45.780 And to Aristotle we owe the notion that there are three fundamental forms of government, and you're all probably familiar with this, monarchy, aristocracy, and something we can call republic, or commonwealth, in which the popular element predominates. 129 00:15:45.780 --> 00:15:51.780 And then these have degenerate forms, tyranny, oligarchy and democracy. 130 00:15:51.780 --> 00:15:55.780 This is never a favorable term in this literature as far as I know. 131 00:15:55.780 --> 00:16:01.780 And essentially it has to do with the nature of what you might call the social pyramid. 132 00:16:01.780 --> 00:16:08.780 Ideally you have this broad middle group of independent property owners 133 00:16:08.780 --> 00:16:14.780 capable of bearing arms in defense of their own property and the Republic. 134 00:16:14.780 --> 00:16:19.780 And there's a fairly short transition from this to the Second Amendment. 135 00:16:19.780 --> 00:16:27.780 Although I think the Second Amendment also has some other material from other sources in it. 136 00:16:27.780 --> 00:16:31.780 I'm not going to accept the, well, I don't want to get into that right now. 137 00:16:31.780 --> 00:16:37.780 In any event, if you had a different social pyramid with a small wealthy class, 138 00:16:37.780 --> 00:16:45.780 Class, you'll be prone to, here's the wealthy, what the ancient Greeks called stasis or evolution, 139 00:16:45.780 --> 00:16:50.980 because these oligarchs will oppress the people and then the people will rise up and oppress them 140 00:16:50.980 --> 00:16:54.340 and there'll be this property transfer and nothing is stable. 141 00:16:54.340 --> 00:17:05.460 So the ideal state has this kind of distribution socially and also this distribution may correspond 142 00:17:05.460 --> 00:17:10.660 in some way to the forms of government so there may be, although in the Greek 143 00:17:10.660 --> 00:17:13.980 Republics there isn't typically an executive, you've got the ephors that 144 00:17:13.980 --> 00:17:21.340 Sparta and Rome had the two consuls, but in any event you've got the aristocrats 145 00:17:21.340 --> 00:17:27.620 up here, plus or minus a hereditary executive, then you've got your broad 146 00:17:27.620 --> 00:17:32.820 middle group represented and possibly some large popular assembly, and down 147 00:17:32.820 --> 00:17:43.820 Down here you have others, because after all the ancient world held slavery in the fairly unnuanced form. 148 00:17:43.820 --> 00:17:46.820 Okay, so you have non-citizens down there. 149 00:17:46.820 --> 00:17:56.820 Okay, so to make a long story short, this is also punched up a bit and theorized by the Greek writer Polybius in the second century B.C. 150 00:17:56.820 --> 00:18:09.820 And then, of course, the Roman Republic is the most successful one militarily, it keeps expanding, it absorbs Italy, it starts absorbing the entire neighborhood, pretty soon it's this colossal empire. 151 00:18:09.820 --> 00:18:24.320 And by the time of Octavian, they're still pretending there's a republic, but essentially the power is gravitated to one man and the military and the bureaucracy, and it's effectively the empire, the first phase of which we call it the Principate. 152 00:18:24.320 --> 00:18:35.660 So there seems to be a problem with republics that go into the expansion business and end up absent the republican forms, and this is a troubling thing. 153 00:18:35.660 --> 00:18:44.660 And we're next to hear of republican theory in the Renaissance, when the city-state form of government is recreated. 154 00:18:44.660 --> 00:18:49.880 Florence, Venice, all sorts of Italian city-states with different constitutions. 155 00:18:49.880 --> 00:19:01.040 And rather than carry on about that, I'll just stipulate that Niccolò Machiavelli, who dies in 1527, 156 00:19:01.040 --> 00:19:08.760 is generally regarded as the most thorough exponent of the Renaissance Italian form of Republican theory. 157 00:19:08.760 --> 00:19:16.320 Again, using largely these same categories, but concerned in particular about the sort of the diseases of republics, 158 00:19:16.320 --> 00:19:28.920 It's how to keep republics, how to avoid what his interpreter, J.G.A. Pocock, I believe a New Zealand historian, calls the Machiavellian moment, 159 00:19:28.920 --> 00:19:34.520 which is the point of crisis in which the whole constitutional order could be lost. 160 00:19:34.520 --> 00:19:43.520 And there's a lot to do with the republican reflections on the nature of time and whether time as such tends to cause these systems to decay 161 00:19:43.520 --> 00:19:45.200 and there may be a certain fear of history 162 00:19:45.200 --> 00:19:46.560 and there's all sorts of interesting themes. 163 00:19:46.560 --> 00:19:48.360 Anyway, J.G.A. Pocock. 164 00:19:50.600 --> 00:19:55.600 If, I don't know, is Professor Bassani here? 165 00:19:55.600 --> 00:19:57.100 Okay, well, he won't pick a quarrel with me then 166 00:19:57.100 --> 00:20:01.800 for mentioning Pocock, but then it was a very brilliant book 167 00:20:01.800 --> 00:20:06.800 which I think may have misled us in some later periods 168 00:20:07.160 --> 00:20:12.160 by overemphasizing making the republic constrain 169 00:20:12.160 --> 00:20:19.160 and the sort of dominant mode of production, so to speak, where these ideas are concerned, but nonetheless very useful. 170 00:20:19.160 --> 00:20:24.160 And with Machiavelli, you hear a lot about this concept of virtu. 171 00:20:24.160 --> 00:20:32.160 This has to do with all these sort of manly, quasi-Spartan attributes of character. 172 00:20:32.160 --> 00:20:40.160 The problem with the word virtu in English is that the Victorians ruined it for us by making us think it has to do mostly with chastity. 173 00:20:40.160 --> 00:20:49.760 But this has to do with the character traits that these ideal citizens would have to have on their own land bearing arms in their own defense or defense of the republic. 174 00:20:49.760 --> 00:21:06.560 Okay, so so far we've got at least a theory of government and of course the ongoing concern that if something happens to this distribution of property the balance, the social balance is disturbed 175 00:21:06.560 --> 00:21:14.560 and you suffer a transition to some less desirable form of government. 176 00:21:14.560 --> 00:21:18.560 What's this have to do with Britain and the current revolution? 177 00:21:18.560 --> 00:21:20.560 Okay, well here's the tricky part. 178 00:21:20.560 --> 00:21:27.560 Well, all of the ideas of the Renaissance tend to percolate from south to north into northwestern Europe. 179 00:21:27.560 --> 00:21:34.560 Machiavelli has some interpreters in time in English who don't seem to have made much of an impact, 180 00:21:34.560 --> 00:21:37.280 But there's an impact, I think, on Shakespeare. 181 00:21:37.280 --> 00:21:43.120 The play Coriolanus seems to be centered on these Republican themes. 182 00:21:43.120 --> 00:21:48.480 And so there are a few people who know these ideas and are ready to expand them. 183 00:21:48.480 --> 00:21:49.640 Should there be any reason to? 184 00:21:49.640 --> 00:21:51.160 Shouldn't there be a crisis in the system? 185 00:21:51.160 --> 00:21:56.640 And Pocock argues that it's precisely the breakdown of orderly government 186 00:21:56.640 --> 00:22:02.080 in the conflict between king and parliament that creates an opening for the Republican theorists 187 00:22:02.080 --> 00:22:06.560 to put their ideas into the discussion. 188 00:22:06.560 --> 00:22:07.880 So let me see. 189 00:22:12.480 --> 00:22:17.480 So the Civil War, I guess that's a distinct category. 190 00:22:18.920 --> 00:22:23.920 The Civil War, essentially 1642 to what, 191 00:22:25.160 --> 00:22:27.520 49 when the king is beheaded. 192 00:22:27.520 --> 00:22:57.520 and then the the rest of it to to 1660 when there's a restoration the rest of this we might separate and call it the Puritan Revolution as such but this is the English Civil War if you should ever be in Uxbridge in West London and walk past a particular pub you'll see a plaque that says on this site in 1642 the negotiations between the representatives of Charles the First and Parliament broke down and then the the war became inevitable 193 00:22:57.520 --> 00:23:02.020 So there's a pub you might happen to go by sometime. 194 00:23:04.020 --> 00:23:07.720 So there's a whole set of issues that are cut to the quick. 195 00:23:07.720 --> 00:23:14.020 The essential problem in some ways is that the Stuart's who have replaced the Tudor line 196 00:23:14.020 --> 00:23:21.220 with the death of Elizabeth, the Stuart's wanted to rule somewhat in the manner of the French monarchs. 197 00:23:21.220 --> 00:23:24.920 They wanted to try out this absolute monarchy. 198 00:23:24.920 --> 00:23:28.920 And unfortunately, in Britain, they were faced with some institutions that made that difficult. 199 00:23:28.920 --> 00:23:32.920 Of course, chiefly parliament, but also the independent courts. 200 00:23:32.920 --> 00:23:38.620 And so it's a bit of a problem, and particularly since the states insist on having wars in France and so forth, 201 00:23:38.620 --> 00:23:42.120 and then they need money for them, and then they go to parliament, and parliament says, 202 00:23:42.120 --> 00:23:46.120 well, fine, we'll give you some money, but you have to sign this petition of rights. 203 00:23:46.120 --> 00:23:51.320 It sort of restates Magna Carta and some other rights of the subject, 204 00:23:51.320 --> 00:23:58.120 Some of which pretty much literally end up in the American Constitution, some of the things from the petition of right. 205 00:23:58.120 --> 00:24:03.080 So the stewards aren't very happy about this. 206 00:24:03.080 --> 00:24:11.560 So Charles, the first having had to submit to that doesn't call Parliament. 207 00:24:11.560 --> 00:24:16.640 There's still some option that the King can try to get along without Parliament for a period of time. 208 00:24:16.640 --> 00:24:21.960 So you have a gap from 1629 to 1640 in which there's no parliament. 209 00:24:21.960 --> 00:24:27.680 And in the meantime, the Syrians have another problem, which is they're always suspected of being crypto-Catholics. 210 00:24:27.680 --> 00:24:32.680 They're always suspected because they support the high church party within the Church of England. 211 00:24:32.680 --> 00:24:40.720 And this is very important because, again, the Church is central to the spiritual welfare of all the subjects 212 00:24:40.720 --> 00:24:46.160 and also has the welfare functions which are taken over by the abstract state later. 213 00:24:46.160 --> 00:24:49.080 So church government is important for any number of reasons. 214 00:24:49.080 --> 00:24:52.560 Also, it's a question of who's going to get the living, 215 00:24:52.560 --> 00:24:55.560 who's going to actually get the money 216 00:24:55.560 --> 00:25:00.560 that goes to the ministry for preaching. 217 00:25:00.680 --> 00:25:03.200 There's interesting stuff there. 218 00:25:03.200 --> 00:25:05.200 So this is the reign of Archbishop Laud, 219 00:25:05.200 --> 00:25:07.760 and he's hated by all of the more Protestant elements 220 00:25:07.760 --> 00:25:11.840 in the church, and eventually he has a bad end 221 00:25:11.840 --> 00:25:13.780 in the course of the struggle. 222 00:25:13.780 --> 00:25:24.780 Also, 1635, the king decides he needs some extra revenue, so he, on his own motion, he says, 223 00:25:24.780 --> 00:25:28.780 well, I'm going to tax the port cities for some extra money. This is called the ship money. 224 00:25:28.780 --> 00:25:34.780 And he hasn't got a parliament, it's not in session, it can't consent, so people, I guess, 225 00:25:34.780 --> 00:25:40.780 mostly pay the tax and some don't. And John Hampton became a fairly popular figure by 226 00:25:40.780 --> 00:25:46.780 not paying the ship money even though he lost in court. 227 00:25:46.780 --> 00:25:54.780 Okay, now the church policy again is having further results. 228 00:25:54.780 --> 00:26:01.780 You have to remember that the stewards are kings of both Scotland and England. 229 00:26:01.780 --> 00:26:04.780 The countries are separate. This just happens to be the same king. 230 00:26:04.780 --> 00:26:08.780 So he's trying to push his church policy into Scotland. 231 00:26:08.780 --> 00:26:38.780 Well, the Scots are by now are largely Presbyterians, they won't stand for this and they've signed their Solemn League and Covenant to resist this and the king decides he has to call a parliament to get some money to subdue the Scots as he calls the short parliament and then the Scots aren't subdued and he needs more money to bribe the Scots, so it's constant problems and this is by no means the complete 232 00:26:38.780 --> 00:26:46.060 political history. So he calls the long parliament in 1641. He has no idea it's going to be a long 233 00:26:46.060 --> 00:26:56.860 parliament, but it ends up outlasting him. And also, in short order, there's a rebellion in Ireland, 234 00:26:56.860 --> 00:27:04.420 again, partly over these church questions and the usual questions. And there's a large Presbyterian 235 00:27:04.420 --> 00:27:08.420 Party in Parliament. Again, here we have to introduce the concept of the gentry. 236 00:27:08.420 --> 00:27:18.100 The gentry are an interesting social class. They are large landholders. Some of them may 237 00:27:18.100 --> 00:27:25.820 dabble, I guess, in some the high end of commerce. They're not the title nobility. They don't sit in 238 00:27:25.820 --> 00:27:33.660 the House of Lords, but they're the dominant element in the House of Commons. And very many 239 00:27:33.660 --> 00:27:40.540 Many of them are on the spectrum of radical protestants from the milder ones, I guess 240 00:27:40.540 --> 00:27:46.140 the Presbyterians, independents over to some other. Protestantism is very complicated in 241 00:27:46.140 --> 00:27:55.980 this period. Once the war breaks out you hear more from the Anabaptists and people who become 242 00:27:55.980 --> 00:28:00.300 the Quakers and so forth and the Anarcho-Baptists as I call them because many of them didn't 243 00:28:00.300 --> 00:28:06.100 I don't believe in serving in the military or having anything to do with government and so on. 244 00:28:06.100 --> 00:28:19.100 So to make a long story very short, the royalist forces are defeated once parliament and the king are putting their own armies in the field to fight. 245 00:28:19.100 --> 00:28:27.100 So it's like having a war between the Supreme Court, I guess, and the presidency or something in our terms. 246 00:28:27.100 --> 00:28:39.100 And out of this emerges, of course, Oliver Cromwell, who becomes the sort of symbolic figure and the, in time, dictator ruling under a written constitution of some sort. 247 00:28:39.100 --> 00:28:48.100 And there's constant purges of parliament as the element, revolutionary elements in control of parliament become more radical. 248 00:28:48.100 --> 00:28:54.100 They have to purge the less reliable members who want to negotiate with the king, and the king is finally beheaded. 249 00:28:54.100 --> 00:29:24.100 and so you go from the long parliament to the rump parliament which is the remnant after they purge the less reliable elements and eventually you end up at the bare bones parliament and some of those guys are purged so it's quite a bit like the sequence in the first revolution that said that Louis XVI used to read books about the English Civil War while he was awaiting his fate to kind of find out what was going to happen on the theory that things repeat themselves okay so to make a long story short eventually for 250 00:29:24.100 --> 00:29:33.100 There's a whole number of reasons this revolution stalls, but in the interim there's a very interesting phenomenon coming out of the army. 251 00:29:33.100 --> 00:29:43.100 And this is the new model army that comes into being after the Battle of Marsden-Moore, which I guess is what, 1644. 252 00:29:43.100 --> 00:29:53.100 And this is the most radical Protestant elements in what's becoming a Puritan Revolution and not just a civil war, are in the army. 253 00:29:53.100 --> 00:29:58.100 and this is a large mass army called the New Model Army 254 00:29:59.480 --> 00:30:02.300 and the army begins to want to make policy. 255 00:30:02.300 --> 00:30:03.500 They don't necessarily want to demobilize, 256 00:30:03.500 --> 00:30:05.980 they want to take direction of the revolution 257 00:30:05.980 --> 00:30:09.260 and out of this comes this whole episode of the levelers 258 00:30:09.260 --> 00:30:11.820 and the levelers are interesting to us, 259 00:30:11.820 --> 00:30:14.700 these people like Lilburn, Walden and Overton 260 00:30:14.700 --> 00:30:18.960 because they start saying that everyone has a propriety 261 00:30:18.960 --> 00:30:20.380 in his own body. 262 00:30:20.380 --> 00:30:21.800 This is the older term for property 263 00:30:21.800 --> 00:30:23.520 or an alternate term for property. 264 00:30:23.520 --> 00:30:26.920 So you have the whole notion of self-ownership stated here 265 00:30:26.920 --> 00:30:30.200 that John Locke will later develop in his own way. 266 00:30:30.200 --> 00:30:32.040 So you have a number of the liberal themes. 267 00:30:32.040 --> 00:30:34.080 In fact, I wanna go ahead and, 268 00:30:34.080 --> 00:30:36.120 you wanna tell me how I'm doing on time? 269 00:30:38.640 --> 00:30:40.840 All right, I think I'm okay. 270 00:30:40.840 --> 00:30:42.560 Anyway, so the Levellers are interesting 271 00:30:42.560 --> 00:30:47.040 in contributing to the liberal strand 272 00:30:47.040 --> 00:30:51.120 in the synthesis that we get in the American Revolution. 273 00:30:51.120 --> 00:30:55.440 They believe in equal liberty of individuals, self-ownership, 274 00:30:55.440 --> 00:30:58.440 and these are stated in a number of famous manifestos 275 00:30:58.440 --> 00:31:01.840 and pamphlets, as well as an attempt 276 00:31:01.840 --> 00:31:03.680 at a written constitution that they propose 277 00:31:03.680 --> 00:31:07.880 the agreement of the people. 278 00:31:07.880 --> 00:31:11.360 And the most famous episode is the debates at Putney, 279 00:31:13.680 --> 00:31:17.840 1647, in which Rainborough, speaking for the agitators, 280 00:31:17.840 --> 00:31:19.740 which are what some of the radical leaders 281 00:31:19.740 --> 00:31:28.740 are called in the Army, argues with Ayrton Cromwell's son-in-law and the more conservative elements, including Cromwell, 282 00:31:28.740 --> 00:31:36.740 and this is all relative, revolutions keep moving so the radical element last week is now the more conservative element this week, 283 00:31:36.740 --> 00:31:45.740 Cromwell and the more conservative element at this point begin to fear that these guys want to eliminate or redistribute property 284 00:31:45.740 --> 00:31:51.740 And that's really not what they're saying, but it's a good name to call them, so this is why they're called Levellers. 285 00:31:51.740 --> 00:31:55.740 And for a long time, the socialist historians have claimed them as proto-socialists. 286 00:31:55.740 --> 00:32:06.740 And it took a Marxist, C. B. McPherson, a Canadian Marxist, to demonstrate that the Levellers were in fact propertarians, 287 00:32:06.740 --> 00:32:12.740 something like early radical libertarians or something and not interested in limiting property, 288 00:32:12.740 --> 00:32:42.740 but wanting to redefine the rules of government, so they wanted to abolish things like imprisonment for death, they wanted to limit capital punishment to only the crime of murder, they were opposed to primogeniture, so their program taken as a whole is fairly scary, but they weren't actually interested in, so McPherson actually says, well they're the radical wing of the bourgeois revolution, well it's fine with me, I have no problem with that, 289 00:32:42.740 --> 00:32:51.300 as such. So here's the most interesting ideological development in this whole 290 00:32:51.300 --> 00:33:00.800 process from 1642 to 1660, but of course they lose. They don't prevail and the 291 00:33:00.800 --> 00:33:05.840 revolution is reigned in by Cromwell and the leadership. Cromwell dies in 1658. 292 00:33:05.840 --> 00:33:12.440 There's an attempt to have his son rule in his stead, but the steam has gone out 293 00:33:12.440 --> 00:33:22.440 and for a whole number of reasons, everyone's ready finally to restore the king. 294 00:33:22.440 --> 00:33:29.440 So let me go back now to how the Republican ideas come into the picture. 295 00:33:29.440 --> 00:33:38.440 It's interesting, of course, that Hobbes, about whom Dr. Ludwigsen was just speaking, is a product of this period. 296 00:33:38.440 --> 00:33:51.040 He's very unhappy about disorder, naturally enough, and wants to find a solution, so you don't have to go through these things anymore, civil wars and so forth, and he writes in 1651. 297 00:33:51.040 --> 00:34:08.240 Now, probably the classic statement of Republican theory in its English form is in Oceania, a utopian novel or work by James Harrington published in 1656, just before the Restoration. 298 00:34:08.240 --> 00:34:12.280 And Harrington disagrees with a lot of the writers on English politics. 299 00:34:12.280 --> 00:34:16.160 He says there really wasn't an ancient constitution, 300 00:34:16.160 --> 00:34:22.080 but there was a Gothic social order by which he means he understands the feudal system. 301 00:34:22.080 --> 00:34:28.000 But this has been eliminated by institutional changes since at least Henry VII. 302 00:34:28.000 --> 00:34:34.800 And so England has to find a new political balance and a social balance to go with it. 303 00:34:34.800 --> 00:34:41.240 and so he's recommending various reforms to bring about the Republican program. 304 00:34:41.240 --> 00:34:52.200 And so he has some readers, but by the time the restoration has taken place and new issues have come up, 305 00:34:52.200 --> 00:34:58.600 the Harringtonians, the followers of Harrington, are standing his arguments somewhat on their head, 306 00:34:58.600 --> 00:35:02.040 as happened with Hegel in relation to Marx, 307 00:35:02.040 --> 00:35:09.900 and arguing that, well, there had been an ancient constitution, and we have to restore it, or the constitution we have now is good, what we have to do, 308 00:35:09.900 --> 00:35:16.300 in effect, people like Shaftesbury, the Earl of Shaftesbury, who is the leader of the Whigs and the Exclusion Crisis, 309 00:35:16.300 --> 00:35:28.240 which I don't really have to go into, I guess, just to explain that James II, the last of the stewards is deposed, and part of the background is the Exclusion Crisis. 310 00:35:28.240 --> 00:35:36.120 Again, he's openly Catholic and this is not selling very well and plus he's trying to proclaim a policy of tolerance 311 00:35:36.120 --> 00:35:42.320 so that the Catholics can be tolerated and so forth. The radical Protestants aren't very happy with this, even the moderate Protestants aren't happy. 312 00:35:42.320 --> 00:35:53.280 So to make a long story not too much longer, people like Shaftesbury and the Whigs, the Whig Party, as it's now called within Parliament, 313 00:35:53.280 --> 00:35:59.920 begin using this republican rhetoric as part of their armament, as part of what they use in debate. 314 00:35:59.920 --> 00:36:07.840 And they say, well, actually we have in Britain right now something approaching a republican constitution 315 00:36:07.840 --> 00:36:12.720 with the division of government and the social distribution of property is close enough. 316 00:36:12.720 --> 00:36:21.520 But the danger is that the king, this bad king, the Stuart King, is going to use various means of corruption 317 00:36:21.520 --> 00:36:29.120 and in the small sense of buying votes and so forth in parliament to unbalance the system. 318 00:36:29.120 --> 00:36:38.560 And that's the larger corruption is the constitutional violation of this order or undermining of the constitutional structure. 319 00:36:38.560 --> 00:36:41.880 That's the larger corruption. It's not actually the money so much. 320 00:36:41.880 --> 00:36:44.440 And they're saying, well, he's going to do this with a standing army. 321 00:36:44.440 --> 00:36:48.800 Well, by now, having gone through the civil war and so forth, 322 00:36:48.800 --> 00:37:04.800 There is a reasonable fear of a standing army, and these gentlemen use the rhetoric that James the Second is like all these other stewards, he's attempting to create a standing army so he can overpower parliament and the people. 323 00:37:04.800 --> 00:37:12.800 And if the political constitution is changed, then the social structure, the whole social structure will change and everyone will be oppressed. 324 00:37:12.800 --> 00:37:23.740 And this is the famous division that's expressed by this time as the opposition of the court party and the country party. 325 00:37:23.740 --> 00:37:30.700 So the court party are these kind of drones and parasites that hang around the court and constitute the bureaucracy 326 00:37:30.700 --> 00:37:35.400 and get all the favors and do all the corruption, the stock-jobbing and all of that. 327 00:37:35.400 --> 00:37:43.160 And these are the people who want to undermine the whole order of the Constitution and society. 328 00:37:43.160 --> 00:37:50.400 The country party are the virtuous citizens on their own land, able to bear arms. 329 00:37:50.400 --> 00:37:54.320 The fact that they're, you know, huge landowners isn't beside the point. 330 00:37:54.320 --> 00:37:57.000 They're the country party. 331 00:37:57.000 --> 00:38:00.960 And you can see how potentially in North America, you could democratize this concept 332 00:38:00.960 --> 00:38:09.560 because there's a lot more people owning land and despite Professor Valziel's owning weapons and firearms and so on. 333 00:38:09.560 --> 00:38:18.160 So you can see that this sort of rhetoric has a real future in North America. 334 00:38:18.160 --> 00:38:30.060 Now, the Whigs do depose James II and they take power and are quickly known as the Whig Oligarchy 335 00:38:30.060 --> 00:38:45.060 And they begin to govern somewhat the way he did. I mean, they simply say, well, you can't govern a modern kingdom without some corruption, and you have to have a little bit of a standing army, even though we can mostly get by with the Navy. 336 00:38:45.060 --> 00:38:48.060 There are just things you have to do. 337 00:38:48.060 --> 00:38:58.060 So a new opposition arises, and the new opposition consists of some of the Tory party, the old Tories, like Viscount Bolingbroke, 338 00:38:58.060 --> 00:39:07.060 but also some of the people who had supported them, who are now known as radical Whigs, and attacked them using the same rhetoric. 339 00:39:07.060 --> 00:39:12.060 And here we have writers like what have been called the Commonwealthmen. 340 00:39:12.060 --> 00:39:16.900 There's a book by Carolyn Robbins on this. It's quite good. 341 00:39:16.900 --> 00:39:19.900 And Valen talks about this whole literature. 342 00:39:19.900 --> 00:39:21.200 And this is what the Americans read. 343 00:39:21.200 --> 00:39:26.760 They read all these guys who are talking about these dangers of standing army 344 00:39:26.760 --> 00:39:31.100 and the executive overpowering the popular branches 345 00:39:31.100 --> 00:39:37.860 and changing the whole nature of the society, which they identify as a free society. 346 00:39:37.860 --> 00:39:40.100 Now, in my view, Trenchard and Gordon and such writers, 347 00:39:40.100 --> 00:39:48.600 Many of them are already combining several strains of thought, and you can already see the beginnings of the American synthesis, so to speak, across the water. 348 00:39:48.600 --> 00:39:59.600 So the Americans are reading this literature, and after 1763, when the British imperial authorities decide they want to tighten up the system and have a better run empire, 349 00:39:59.600 --> 00:40:09.600 the Americans take this as a bad sign that precisely the sorts of things that these writers predict are now being undertaken by George III 350 00:40:09.600 --> 00:40:12.600 and his ministers and Lord North and all of that. 351 00:40:12.600 --> 00:40:18.400 So there's a tendency, of course, for some historians to dismiss this as mere paranoia. 352 00:40:18.400 --> 00:40:26.300 It's some crazy antique ideology the Americans have read and it's really not very reasonable of them to not want to pay the stamp tax and so forth. 353 00:40:26.300 --> 00:40:29.300 But in fact, they actually read the news. 354 00:40:29.300 --> 00:40:32.100 It might take a few weeks to get over here, but they read the news. 355 00:40:32.100 --> 00:40:38.200 They knew there'd been a royal reaction in a number of countries that the King of Denmark had sort of abolished 356 00:40:38.200 --> 00:40:44.240 or subdued his parliament and they had a number of reasons and plus they knew that when the 357 00:40:44.240 --> 00:40:47.480 T was shipped over they knew who that was supposed to bail out. It was supposed to bail 358 00:40:47.480 --> 00:40:53.960 out the directors of the East India Company who had lost a bunch of money on a particularly 359 00:40:53.960 --> 00:41:00.480 large boondoggle. So this can't be reduced to paranoia. It does show however they had 360 00:41:00.480 --> 00:41:10.480 had a much higher standard than we do of deciding when they were being oppressed, a rather higher standard. 361 00:41:10.480 --> 00:41:22.180 Okay, I think I'm running out of time. Let me try to bring this to some sort of reasonable conclusion. 362 00:41:22.180 --> 00:41:27.980 Now, there's a downside to Republican theory, which is why I'm glad it's not the only element 363 00:41:27.980 --> 00:41:30.700 in the American Synthesis as it emerged in the revolution. 364 00:41:30.700 --> 00:41:33.660 Not that it saved us in the very long run, 365 00:41:33.660 --> 00:41:34.860 but it was a pretty good synthesis 366 00:41:34.860 --> 00:41:38.740 because after all, liberalism had no theory of government 367 00:41:38.740 --> 00:41:39.940 other than there were some rights 368 00:41:39.940 --> 00:41:42.020 and someone should protect them. 369 00:41:42.020 --> 00:41:43.820 Republicanism had a theory of government, 370 00:41:43.820 --> 00:41:45.020 really had no theory of rights. 371 00:41:45.020 --> 00:41:45.980 If you combine the two, 372 00:41:45.980 --> 00:41:48.300 it seems to me you get a more powerful system, 373 00:41:48.300 --> 00:41:51.740 even if there are times when the elements seem to pull apart 374 00:41:51.740 --> 00:41:53.580 as people try to apply them. 375 00:41:53.580 --> 00:41:57.340 So I think the synthesis itself is interesting. 376 00:41:57.340 --> 00:42:09.220 Republican theory, left to its own devices, can go off in the direction of integral nationalism about which Dr. Livingston was speaking. 377 00:42:09.220 --> 00:42:13.060 And there's also an interesting tension with the American Republican thinkers. 378 00:42:13.060 --> 00:42:14.980 And this goes back to Harrington. 379 00:42:14.980 --> 00:42:20.860 There's still this idea that some of them have, and I understand, as did Machiavelli, that there's a danger, 380 00:42:20.860 --> 00:42:27.460 But some of the Republican thinkers are still interested in maybe having an empire anyway. 381 00:42:27.460 --> 00:42:33.660 They'll say, well, maybe just this one time we can have an empire and it'll remain Republican. 382 00:42:33.660 --> 00:42:36.160 And Harrington already says this in Oceania. 383 00:42:36.160 --> 00:42:39.860 Harrington says, oh, well, let's see. 384 00:42:39.860 --> 00:42:42.560 Okay, that'll be England. 385 00:42:42.560 --> 00:42:47.860 And Harrington says, well, Oceania, meaning England, hasn't gotten the immediate neighbors by land, 386 00:42:47.860 --> 00:42:50.560 so we don't have to have any big standing army. 387 00:42:50.560 --> 00:43:00.560 We can do everything by naval power. So we can expand indefinitely to the West. 388 00:43:00.560 --> 00:43:06.320 Well, we'll start there, the Irish model, always a starting point for these problems. 389 00:43:06.320 --> 00:43:12.800 But also into the Indies, so there's this infinite possibility of expansion over land. 390 00:43:12.800 --> 00:43:19.440 So Harrington's already predicted the American Empire, except he thinks it'll be British. 391 00:43:19.440 --> 00:43:25.160 He doesn't realize the empire might outgrow the state that set it in motion. 392 00:43:25.160 --> 00:43:32.440 And this seems to me is what happens with some later figures like Jefferson. 393 00:43:32.440 --> 00:43:41.200 This can't turn down a big real estate deal because of the importance of the landed individuals on their own property. 394 00:43:41.200 --> 00:43:45.160 He wants to postpone any moment of reckoning that... 395 00:43:45.160 --> 00:43:48.880 I think they're wrong about there having to be a moment of reckoning, but they tended to believe this. 396 00:43:48.880 --> 00:44:18.880 at least some of the time they don't really entirely assimilate the notion that a complex market economy sort of gets you around some of these problems and some of them and not so much Jefferson and even less John Taylor some of them tend to think that all credit and all banking is suspect simply because they're looking at the national debt which is a new invention that Harrington didn't anticipate that becomes central to some of the debates after 16 397 00:44:18.880 --> 00:44:48.880 in 1988, they don't understand that banking is not all about national debt and money doesn't have to be funny money and so forth so there's some problems in the Republican tradition left to itself including the tendency some of the Republican thinkers have to say well as long as we keep expanding and it's just over land that's okay because we incorporate the land and everybody gets some land and then they're citizens and then we 398 00:44:48.880 --> 00:44:56.920 And so in a way, Harrington already anticipates James Madison's argument in the tenth Federalist 399 00:44:56.920 --> 00:45:02.960 paper that you actually reduce the problem of faction by allowing for expansion of the 400 00:45:02.960 --> 00:45:03.960 system over land. 401 00:45:03.960 --> 00:45:08.200 In a way, it didn't work that badly, except when it didn't work. 402 00:45:08.200 --> 00:45:13.040 And it didn't work when we had in effect followed the Roman model of rapid expansion, had a 403 00:45:13.040 --> 00:45:17.480 bunch of land, and then we had to quarrel about who got the benefit from it. 404 00:45:17.480 --> 00:45:23.840 And this cut across the slavery question with certain results that we're all familiar with. 405 00:45:23.840 --> 00:45:30.240 One more thing very quickly, there's an interesting way in which the Republican attitude towards 406 00:45:30.240 --> 00:45:37.160 military policy comes straight down. Republicans tended to, and Britain had the luxury of saying, 407 00:45:37.160 --> 00:45:44.280 well, we can base anything we do on naval power and a small standing army. And in a 408 00:45:44.280 --> 00:45:54.280 In a way, this comes right down to the Taft Republicans in the 1940s and early 50s who say, 409 00:45:54.280 --> 00:45:58.280 well, we'll do everything with air power, if we have to do anything with air power and naval power, 410 00:45:58.280 --> 00:46:01.280 and we still have a small standing army. 411 00:46:01.280 --> 00:46:07.280 And the court party, we might say, who knows, court party, FDR, Kennedy, people like that, 412 00:46:07.280 --> 00:46:12.280 they don't mind a larger standing army in principle. 413 00:46:12.280 --> 00:46:16.600 The Court Party always had a different set of assumptions about this particular issue, 414 00:46:16.600 --> 00:46:20.760 but this may in fact be a long-run heritage of, because Jefferson, you'll recall, wanted 415 00:46:20.760 --> 00:46:25.600 to defend the United States with these little PT boats that would go around the coast, and 416 00:46:25.600 --> 00:46:28.280 we don't know how workable that was, but it was an interesting notion. 417 00:46:28.280 --> 00:46:35.280 All right, there's a lot more one can say, but I'd better not, so thank you for your indulgence. 418 00:46:42.280 --> 00:46:44.280 Thank you very much.