WEBVTT NOTE Libertarian Science Fiction II 1 00:00:00.000 --> 00:00:09.540 The Ludwig von Mises Institute presents The Libertarian Tradition, an audio series with 2 00:00:09.540 --> 00:00:12.920 Jeff Rigenbach. 3 00:00:12.920 --> 00:00:19.200 This podcast is about four writers, none of whom was a libertarian, but each of whom wrote 4 00:00:19.200 --> 00:00:26.200 something back in the 1960s that made a significant contribution to the libertarian tradition. 5 00:00:26.200 --> 00:00:31.000 The first of the four was a science fiction writer, though only occasionally. 6 00:00:31.000 --> 00:00:39.960 He was born 94 years ago last week, on February 25, 1917, in suburban Manchester, England. 7 00:00:39.960 --> 00:00:43.520 His name at birth was John Burgess Wilson. 8 00:00:43.520 --> 00:00:48.440 His family was Roman Catholic, which at that time virtually guaranteed that he would be 9 00:00:48.440 --> 00:00:51.960 confirmed in the church at the age of about seven. 10 00:00:51.960 --> 00:00:58.920 He had, therefore, already come to be known as Jack Wilson, when in the mid-1920s he was, 11 00:00:58.920 --> 00:01:04.060 as he puts it in his autobiography, confirmed in the name of St. Anthony. 12 00:01:04.060 --> 00:01:10.080 This made him John Anthony Burgess Wilson, from the time of his confirmation onward, 13 00:01:10.080 --> 00:01:14.520 and gave him the pen name under which he would eventually become famous. 14 00:01:14.520 --> 00:01:20.520 Anthony Burgess, or just Burgess, as I shall call him from now on, was the son of a musician 15 00:01:20.520 --> 00:01:26.280 Man who drifted from playing piano in movie theaters as accompaniment for silent films, 16 00:01:26.280 --> 00:01:30.880 to playing piano in pubs, to owning and running his own pub. 17 00:01:30.880 --> 00:01:33.040 He wound up a tobacconist. 18 00:01:33.040 --> 00:01:38.900 His son shared his love of music, and wanted to study music at the University of Manchester, 19 00:01:38.900 --> 00:01:43.840 but was not accepted to the program because of his mediocre secondary school grades in 20 00:01:43.840 --> 00:01:44.840 physics. 21 00:01:44.840 --> 00:01:47.680 So, he majored in English instead. 22 00:01:47.680 --> 00:01:53.840 After graduating in 1940, he spent six years in the Army during and just after World War 23 00:01:53.840 --> 00:02:01.120 II, then put in six more years as a literature instructor at various English secondary schools. 24 00:02:01.120 --> 00:02:08.160 By now it was 1954. Burgess was 37 years old, and he wasn't earning enough money teaching 25 00:02:08.160 --> 00:02:13.720 school. He had decided to try his hand at a couple of novels, but when one of the publishers, 26 00:02:13.720 --> 00:02:18.740 to whom he had submitted one of these novels, wrote to him, requesting that he come to their 27 00:02:18.740 --> 00:02:21.980 London offices to discuss his manuscript. 28 00:02:21.980 --> 00:02:27.000 He found he was too broke to travel the 75 miles he would have had to travel to keep 29 00:02:27.000 --> 00:02:28.640 such an appointment. 30 00:02:28.640 --> 00:02:33.960 As he put it in his autobiography, I was in debt to the grocer and overdrawn at the bank. 31 00:02:33.960 --> 00:02:38.480 I could not afford a return train ticket from Banbury to London. 32 00:02:38.480 --> 00:02:43.880 In the end, he did find a way to make the trip, but his novel was rejected anyway, not 33 00:02:43.880 --> 00:02:48.320 only by the publisher that had asked for the meeting, but by every publisher that looked 34 00:02:48.320 --> 00:02:54.000 at it. The other novel fared no better. On the other hand, the British Colonial Service 35 00:02:54.000 --> 00:03:00.320 had offered him a job as a teacher and educational administrator in Malaya. He took it, and spent 36 00:03:00.320 --> 00:03:06.120 the next five years in the Far East. It was there that he became a published novelist, 37 00:03:06.120 --> 00:03:10.120 is there that he first publicly called himself Anthony Burgess. 38 00:03:10.120 --> 00:03:13.120 As he wrote years later in his autobiography, 39 00:03:13.120 --> 00:03:18.120 When I published my first novel, I was forced to do so in near disguise. 40 00:03:18.120 --> 00:03:21.120 I was an official of the Colonial Office at the time, 41 00:03:21.120 --> 00:03:26.120 and it was regarded as improper to publish fiction under one's own name. 42 00:03:26.120 --> 00:03:32.120 By the time he returned to England in 1959, Burgess was 42 years old, 43 00:03:32.120 --> 00:03:37.660 published no fewer than three novels under his newly assumed name. 44 00:03:37.660 --> 00:03:43.120 The problem was not only that he had got off to something of a late start in his new career 45 00:03:43.120 --> 00:03:48.440 as a novelist, but also that his prospects were not particularly good. 46 00:03:48.440 --> 00:03:53.140 Just before leaving Southeast Asia, he had collapsed in his classroom on the island of 47 00:03:53.140 --> 00:03:58.820 Borneo and had been rushed to a local hospital where he was diagnosed with an inoperable 48 00:03:58.820 --> 00:04:27.580 A Jus d'esprit is, of course, a literary display of wit or cleverness, usually short, from the French for play of spirit. 49 00:04:27.580 --> 00:04:32.800 The title of this particular jus d'esprit was A Clockwork Orange. 50 00:04:32.800 --> 00:04:37.940 It was published in 1962, when its author was 45 years old. 51 00:04:37.940 --> 00:04:43.620 A Clockwork Orange is the story of Alex, a juvenile delinquent in a fairly near future 52 00:04:43.620 --> 00:04:44.620 London. 53 00:04:44.620 --> 00:04:49.820 Alex skips school and sleeps all day, then goes out in the evening to get his jollies 54 00:04:49.820 --> 00:04:56.840 committing acts of what he calls ultraviolence, assault and battery, rape, murder. 55 00:04:56.840 --> 00:05:02.360 He is apprehended by the authorities and subjected to the latest brainwashing technology, which 56 00:05:02.360 --> 00:05:08.080 renders him incapable of even witnessing, much less engaging in, acts of any sort of 57 00:05:08.080 --> 00:05:12.960 violence without suffering extreme discomfort and nausea. 58 00:05:12.960 --> 00:05:18.760 When he is released into the outside world again, he commits no more acts of ultraviolence. 59 00:05:18.760 --> 00:05:25.480 But he is also unable to defend himself when hoodlums and thugs who haven't yet been reprogrammed, 60 00:05:25.480 --> 00:05:30.760 including some of his own former associates in crime make him their victim. 61 00:05:30.760 --> 00:05:36.600 In despair he attempts suicide but is rescued by political activists who are organizing 62 00:05:36.600 --> 00:05:41.600 against the government program to brainwash violent criminals. 63 00:05:41.600 --> 00:05:45.180 These activists use Alex to promote their cause. 64 00:05:45.180 --> 00:05:50.000 They create a public scandal and arrange to have his brainwashing reversed. 65 00:05:50.000 --> 00:05:55.200 He thereupon immediately resumes his old ultra-violent ways. 66 00:05:55.200 --> 00:06:01.120 A clockwork orange is not an easy book to read, and I don't mean because of the ultraviolence, 67 00:06:01.120 --> 00:06:03.680 though that is pretty sickening, certainly. 68 00:06:03.680 --> 00:06:08.680 What I mean when I say it's not easy to read is something about the language in which it's 69 00:06:08.680 --> 00:06:09.680 written. 70 00:06:09.680 --> 00:06:15.160 Alex tells his own story in the first person, speaking directly to the reader, and the English 71 00:06:15.160 --> 00:06:20.200 he speaks is not the English we're used to hearing spoken, the English we're used to 72 00:06:20.200 --> 00:06:22.800 reading between the covers of books. 73 00:06:22.800 --> 00:06:28.780 It incorporates the teenage slang of Alex's time, as well as words borrowed or adapted 74 00:06:28.780 --> 00:06:30.420 from Russian. 75 00:06:30.420 --> 00:06:33.740 Reading it is a bit like reading Shakespeare for the first time. 76 00:06:33.740 --> 00:06:38.620 Obscure at first, but you get the hang of it within 10 or 20 pages. 77 00:06:38.620 --> 00:06:44.300 Like Elizabethan English, Alex's English is basically modern English with some unfamiliar 78 00:06:44.300 --> 00:06:46.300 words mixed in. 79 00:06:46.300 --> 00:06:49.660 Once you've picked up those words, you're home free. 80 00:06:49.660 --> 00:06:53.640 This does not have an unusually large vocabulary. 81 00:06:53.640 --> 00:06:58.760 Despite the difficulties Burgess's short novel posed for the unwary reader, however, 82 00:06:58.760 --> 00:07:05.860 it enjoyed considerable success in the marketplace even before Stanley Kubrick's 1971 film version 83 00:07:05.860 --> 00:07:11.480 of the story made it virtually a household word throughout the English-speaking world. 84 00:07:11.480 --> 00:07:17.260 That same film made Burgess a rich man and forced his departure from England, first for 85 00:07:17.260 --> 00:07:19.540 Italy, then for Monaco. 86 00:07:19.540 --> 00:07:25.020 He was forced to depart, that is, unless he chose to pay the high tax bill that would 87 00:07:25.020 --> 00:07:28.460 have been presented to him by British authorities. 88 00:07:28.460 --> 00:07:33.980 Like most of us, Anthony Burgess could summon little enthusiasm for taxes. 89 00:07:33.980 --> 00:07:40.200 I know of no reason to suspect, however, that he opposed taxes in principle, that he was, 90 00:07:40.200 --> 00:07:43.060 in any meaningful sense, a libertarian. 91 00:07:43.060 --> 00:07:48.600 He did write on non-political subjects for inquiry, the Libertarian Opinion magazine 92 00:07:48.600 --> 00:07:55.120 Published back in the late 1970s and early 1980s, first by the Cato Institute, then 93 00:07:55.120 --> 00:07:59.820 by the Libertarian Review Foundation, but that seems to have been the extent of his 94 00:07:59.820 --> 00:08:02.440 connection with the libertarian movement. 95 00:08:02.440 --> 00:08:08.240 On the other hand, his most famous book is an unmistakably libertarian utterance. 96 00:08:08.240 --> 00:08:13.540 As Burgess himself paraphrased it nearly 25 years after the original publication of A 97 00:08:13.540 --> 00:08:18.220 A Clockwork Orange A human being is endowed with free will. 98 00:08:18.220 --> 00:08:21.720 He can use this to choose between good and evil. 99 00:08:21.720 --> 00:08:28.660 If he can only perform good or only perform evil, then he is a clockwork orange, meaning 100 00:08:28.660 --> 00:08:34.740 that he has the appearance of an organism lovely with color and juice, but is in fact 101 00:08:34.740 --> 00:08:41.540 only a clockwork toy to be wound up by God or the devil, or, since this is increasingly 102 00:08:41.540 --> 00:08:44.700 Replacing Both, The Almighty State. 103 00:08:44.700 --> 00:08:50.780 A clockwork orange was intended in part as entertainment of a kind, Burgess acknowledged, 104 00:08:50.780 --> 00:08:57.120 but he wrote, the book does also have a moral lesson, and it is the weary traditional one 105 00:08:57.120 --> 00:09:01.140 of the fundamental importance of moral choice. 106 00:09:01.140 --> 00:09:06.920 Alex loses his own power of moral choice because of brainwashing technology, but the novel 107 00:09:06.920 --> 00:09:11.140 is not really just about the dangers of brainwashing. 108 00:09:11.140 --> 00:09:17.020 On a more abstract, symbolic level, it is about any method the state uses to limit or 109 00:09:17.020 --> 00:09:20.400 defeat the right of the individual to choose. 110 00:09:20.400 --> 00:09:26.700 The Libertarian Futurist Society saw to the heart of the matter when, in 2008, it presented 111 00:09:26.700 --> 00:09:32.960 its Prometheus Hall of Fame Award for Classic Works of Libertarian Fiction to A Clockwork 112 00:09:32.960 --> 00:09:34.500 Orange. 113 00:09:34.500 --> 00:09:40.580 No comparable recognition has ever been extended by any libertarian institution I know of to 114 00:09:40.580 --> 00:09:47.600 of the American writer Philip K. Dick, yet in many ways Dick is quite comparable to Burgess. 115 00:09:47.600 --> 00:09:52.040 Like Burgess, he never gave anyone any reason to think he was a libertarian. 116 00:09:52.040 --> 00:09:55.880 Like Burgess, he buried all such evidence in his fiction. 117 00:09:55.880 --> 00:10:01.220 The big difference between the two writers is that while Burgess wrote one unmistakably 118 00:10:01.220 --> 00:10:07.200 libertarian novel, and nothing else that was even remotely libertarian, or even remotely 119 00:10:07.200 --> 00:10:13.440 and Political, Dick scattered his own equally unmistakable libertarian inclinations across 120 00:10:13.440 --> 00:10:19.720 perhaps as many as a dozen novels published during the 1960s and 70s. 121 00:10:19.720 --> 00:10:25.120 Most of the best-known of Dick's novels, like most of Anthony Burgess's novels, don't concern 122 00:10:25.120 --> 00:10:27.920 themselves with politics at all. 123 00:10:27.920 --> 00:10:33.840 Any libertarianism that may be in novels like The Man in the High Castle or Eubic is in 124 00:10:33.840 --> 00:10:39.480 In the background, the foreground in Dick's best-known novels depicts action that is fraught 125 00:10:39.480 --> 00:10:45.920 more with psychological or metaphysical or epistemological concerns than with political 126 00:10:45.920 --> 00:10:46.920 ones. 127 00:10:46.920 --> 00:10:53.000 But during the 1960s, Dick wrote some more explicitly political science fiction. 128 00:10:53.000 --> 00:11:00.400 Think for example of The Zap Gun, first published in 1967, in which American society is divided 129 00:11:00.400 --> 00:11:05.880 into two classes, the pure saps, who believe that the Federal Government of the United 130 00:11:05.880 --> 00:11:12.920 States is protecting them from harm by designing and building ever bigger and scarier weapons 131 00:11:12.920 --> 00:11:19.960 systems, and the cogs, who understand, that is, are cognizant of, the truth, which is 132 00:11:19.960 --> 00:11:25.640 that none of these advanced weapons actually work, except in filmed simulations. 133 00:11:25.640 --> 00:11:31.240 Both major powers are in on the fraud, which they perpetrate in order to prop up a permanent 134 00:11:31.240 --> 00:11:33.780 Cold War economy. 135 00:11:33.780 --> 00:11:39.760 Or think of The Penultimate Truth from three years earlier in 1964. 136 00:11:39.760 --> 00:11:45.280 In this novel, most of Earth's population lives underground, hiding from a thermonuclear 137 00:11:45.280 --> 00:11:51.400 war they believe is raging on the surface, being fought by robots made in underground 138 00:11:51.400 --> 00:11:52.600 factories. 139 00:11:52.600 --> 00:11:54.900 In fact, there is no war. 140 00:11:54.900 --> 00:12:00.300 It is a fiction maintained by a small elite which lives on the surface of the planet in 141 00:12:00.300 --> 00:12:04.980 palatial estates and devotes itself mainly to personal pleasure. 142 00:12:04.980 --> 00:12:10.980 To make sure their racket continues, the members of the elite also devote some time to programming 143 00:12:10.980 --> 00:12:15.000 an android politician they call Yancey. 144 00:12:15.000 --> 00:12:20.260 Yancey keeps the underground masses properly stirred up and misinformed. 145 00:12:20.260 --> 00:12:25.860 His task is not all that difficult, of course, for, as Douglas A. Mackey puts it in his 146 00:12:25.860 --> 00:12:33.820 1988 book on Dick's Life and Work, they want to be misled, they cannot accept the truth, 147 00:12:33.820 --> 00:12:40.660 and the leaders give them what they want, the illusion that war is necessary and inevitable. 148 00:12:40.660 --> 00:12:46.700 Mackey also notes that Joe Fernright, the main character in Galactic Pot Healer, first 149 00:12:46.700 --> 00:12:53.820 published in 1969, lives at the beginning of the novel in an oppressive future dystopia 150 00:12:53.820 --> 00:13:00.080 where policemen stop people for walking too slowly, all phone calls are monitored and 151 00:13:00.080 --> 00:13:04.300 everyone is programmed to have a common dream every night. 152 00:13:04.300 --> 00:13:11.340 Mackey calls this society the ultimate communist denial of personal consciousness. 153 00:13:11.340 --> 00:13:19.820 Philip K. Dick was born in Chicago on December 16, 1928, the son of a Federal bureaucrat. 154 00:13:19.820 --> 00:13:25.200 He grew up in the Windy City, in Washington, D.C., and in the San Francisco Bay Area, where 155 00:13:25.200 --> 00:13:29.100 his mother took him to live after she and her husband divorced. 156 00:13:29.100 --> 00:13:35.760 Dick graduated from Berkeley High School in 1947 and enrolled at the University of California, 157 00:13:35.760 --> 00:13:41.280 but quit very quickly when he discovered that all male students at the University were required 158 00:13:41.280 --> 00:13:43.440 to take ROTC. 159 00:13:43.440 --> 00:13:48.120 He had developed an interest in classical music when very young, and by the time he 160 00:13:48.120 --> 00:13:52.280 was in high school had become something of an authority on the subject. 161 00:13:52.280 --> 00:13:58.920 He worked in record shops until, in 1952, at the age of 23, having published a few short 162 00:13:58.920 --> 00:14:05.200 stories in pulp science fiction magazines, he decided to try his hand at writing full-time. 163 00:14:05.200 --> 00:14:12.120 He wrote full-time for the next 30 years, publishing 36 novels, 121 short stories, 164 00:14:12.120 --> 00:14:16.360 and 14 short story collections during those three decades. 165 00:14:16.360 --> 00:14:24.740 He died of a stroke 29 years ago this week, on March 2, 1982, in Santa Ana, California. 166 00:14:24.740 --> 00:14:27.480 He was 53 years old. 167 00:14:27.480 --> 00:14:33.220 I've mentioned three of Dick's novels from the 1960s, which seemed to me to include broadly 168 00:14:33.220 --> 00:14:36.540 Libertarian Attitudes and Ideas. 169 00:14:36.540 --> 00:14:37.900 Consider a fourth. 170 00:14:37.900 --> 00:14:41.540 The Simulacra was published in 1964. 171 00:14:41.540 --> 00:14:46.400 It is probably the most explicitly political novel Dick ever wrote. 172 00:14:46.400 --> 00:14:52.180 It depicts a future America now merged with Europe and ruled by a one-party state that 173 00:14:52.180 --> 00:14:57.720 is controlled in turn by a council made up of the owners and directors of a group of 174 00:14:57.720 --> 00:15:00.420 giant commercial cartels. 175 00:15:00.420 --> 00:15:06.340 There is an election every four years, but the winning candidate is always a simulacrum, 176 00:15:06.340 --> 00:15:12.620 an animated life-sized doll, an android, completely under the control of the council. 177 00:15:12.620 --> 00:15:19.020 To judge by reports in the mass media, the real power in the U.S.E.A., the United States 178 00:15:19.020 --> 00:15:26.020 of Europe and America, is wielded by the First Lady, Nicole Thibodeau, who always remains 179 00:15:26.020 --> 00:15:31.260 and The First Lady, regardless of who may be elected every four years. 180 00:15:31.260 --> 00:15:36.540 But in fact, Nicole is only the latest in a long series of actresses who have played 181 00:15:36.540 --> 00:15:42.760 this part in the national media, helping the cartels to keep the wool pulled securely over 182 00:15:42.760 --> 00:15:44.860 the eyes of the citizenry. 183 00:15:44.860 --> 00:15:50.720 In brief, the simulacra, like a number of other Philip K. Dick novels, portrays a world 184 00:15:50.720 --> 00:15:56.040 A world in which government is evil, duplicitous and bent on concealing the truth from the 185 00:15:56.040 --> 00:15:57.040 public. 186 00:15:57.040 --> 00:16:02.320 Or, as Douglas Mackey puts it, the world of Philip K. Dick's political novels is one 187 00:16:02.320 --> 00:16:09.400 in which the way society appears to be structured is a complete fake, and media manipulation 188 00:16:09.400 --> 00:16:12.620 conceals the real centers of power. 189 00:16:12.620 --> 00:16:17.640 It seems to me you could pick up some pretty libertarian attitudes from reading Dick. 190 00:16:17.640 --> 00:16:22.920 Ayn Rand has been called the gateway drug for those who are destined to become addicted 191 00:16:22.920 --> 00:16:28.380 to libertarianism, but it seems to me the more explicitly political novels of Philip 192 00:16:28.380 --> 00:16:32.240 K. Dick could serve much the same purpose. 193 00:16:32.240 --> 00:16:38.120 And just as Ayn Rand's great libertarian novel Atlas Shrugged presents an extraordinarily 194 00:16:38.120 --> 00:16:45.560 accurate picture of the fascist policies actually pursued by the US government, so Dick's libertarian 195 00:16:45.560 --> 00:16:53.120 or quasi-libertarian fiction presents an extraordinarily accurate picture of the actual nature of government 196 00:16:53.120 --> 00:16:56.600 and the mass media in American society. 197 00:16:56.600 --> 00:17:01.320 Anyone who doubts this should consult a couple of non-fiction books published back in the 198 00:17:01.320 --> 00:17:06.960 1960s, books written at around the same time Dick was writing his novels. 199 00:17:06.960 --> 00:17:13.200 The first of these two books is Who Rules America by G. William Domhoff, a professor 200 00:17:13.200 --> 00:17:18.820 Professor of Psychology and Sociology at the University of California at Santa Cruz 201 00:17:18.820 --> 00:17:26.280 Who Rules America was originally published in 1967 when its author was in his early thirties. 202 00:17:26.280 --> 00:17:32.380 Though Domhoff was not and is not a libertarian, his book had quite an impact on a number of 203 00:17:32.380 --> 00:17:39.540 people who became involved in the libertarian movement during and just before the 1970s. 204 00:17:39.540 --> 00:17:46.100 So did the second nonfiction book I have in mind, Tragedy and Hope, A History of the World 205 00:17:46.100 --> 00:17:52.900 in Our Time, by Carol Quigley, an American historian with a Harvard Ph.D. who taught 206 00:17:52.900 --> 00:17:59.280 at both Princeton and Harvard before spending the last 35 years of his life at the Georgetown 207 00:17:59.280 --> 00:18:02.980 University School of Foreign Service in Washington. 208 00:18:02.980 --> 00:18:09.120 In effect, Quigley's book, which was first published in 1966, provides the historical 209 00:18:09.120 --> 00:18:15.000 background of the ruling elite Domhoff was to discuss a year later from the point of 210 00:18:15.000 --> 00:18:18.240 view of an investigating sociologist. 211 00:18:18.240 --> 00:18:22.960 Quigley's book also explains why the federal government of the United States of Europe 212 00:18:22.960 --> 00:18:29.880 and America in Philip K. Dick's novel The Simulacra is a one-party state, and why those 213 00:18:29.880 --> 00:18:34.660 Those who still believe at this late date that there is any significant difference between 214 00:18:34.660 --> 00:18:40.340 Republicans and Democrats are indulging themselves in childish fantasy. 215 00:18:40.340 --> 00:18:45.720 As Quigley put it, the argument that the two parties should represent opposed ideals and 216 00:18:45.720 --> 00:18:52.480 policies, one perhaps of the right and the other of the left, is a foolish idea, acceptable 217 00:18:52.480 --> 00:18:56.040 only to the doctrinaire and academic thinkers. 218 00:18:56.040 --> 00:19:01.280 Instead, the two parties should be almost identical, so that the American people can 219 00:19:01.280 --> 00:19:07.620 throw the rascals out at any election without leading to any profound or extreme shifts 220 00:19:07.620 --> 00:19:09.120 in policy. 221 00:19:09.120 --> 00:19:15.960 Either party in office becomes in time corrupt, tired, unenterprising and vigourless. 222 00:19:15.960 --> 00:19:21.160 Then it should be possible to replace it, every four years if necessary, by the other 223 00:19:21.160 --> 00:19:27.200 Policy, which will be none of these things, but will still pursue, with new vigor, approximately 224 00:19:27.200 --> 00:19:29.520 the same basic policies. 225 00:19:29.520 --> 00:19:33.240 No, Quigley wasn't a libertarian either. 226 00:19:33.240 --> 00:19:39.260 He basically accepted the wisdom of rule by a self-appointed cabal of moneyed interests. 227 00:19:39.260 --> 00:19:44.840 He only believed the activities of this ruling elite ought to be out in the open, rather 228 00:19:44.840 --> 00:19:46.380 than concealed. 229 00:19:46.380 --> 00:19:52.260 And his book has exercised great influence over libertarians, just as G. William Domhoff's 230 00:19:52.260 --> 00:19:55.460 book has, and for the same reasons. 231 00:19:55.460 --> 00:19:56.460 This is Jeff Rigenbach.